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- 1Continental crust...solid granite in the lithosphere
- 2oceanic crust...solid basalt in the lithosphere
- 3Outline what is meant by the idea of a convection current in relation to plate tectonics? (2)Magma in the earth's mantle rises in convection currents in a circular movement and pulls apart the tectonic plates above.
- 4Describe the characteristics of a destructive plate boundary. (2)Destructive- Denser basaltic oceanic crust is pushed below continental crust. This is known as subduction, this causes earthquakes and volcanoes. Earthquakes are caused by the friction and volcanoes by the melting crust that rises. Continental crust buckles and forms fold mountains, an example being the Andes.
- 5Describe the characteristics of a constructive plate boundary. (2)Where convection currents rise and pull the conntinental crust apart, forming new oceans. Also forms volcanoes. Happening in east Africa in it's continental rift zone.
- 6Describe the characteristics of a conservative plate boundary. (2)Where two plate boundaries slide against one another of slide the same way at different speeds. This can cause earthquakes. No crust if formed or destroyed. An example is the San Andreas fault.
- 7Factors controlling the severity of earthquakes.Magnitude on Richter scale.
Depth of the earthquake. - 8Impact of earthquake varies according to...Distance from the epicentre.
Time of day.
Level of preparedness.
Quality of emergency services. - 9Primary effects of earthquakes...Deaths, injuries, property disruption.
- 10Primary effects of an earthquake on a developing country.Haiti January 2010 at 05:00pm killed 316000 and injured 300000 and slum housing made people vulnerable to building collapse. £1.8 billion worth of damage.
Magnitude: 7 - 11Primary effects of an earthquake on a developed country.New Zealend September 2010 no deaths and 100 injuries. £1.8 billion worth of damage.
- 12Secondary effects of earthquakes...Impact on property and people. Lack of shelter and basic supplies aswell as fires, disease and aftershocks.
- 13Secondary effects of an earthquake on a developing country.Haiti: 7000 deaths. Estimated 1 million people made homeless. Damage to roads and port stopped trade. Cholera spread due to lack of clean water and sanitation.
- 14Secondary effects of an earthquake on a developed country.New Zealand: Major after shock, magnitude 6.3 which occured in February 2011. Killed 185 people.
- 15Factors that contorl strength and size of a tsunami.Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Distance from epicentre. Example: Indian Ocean tsunami on December 26 2004 which killed 250000 people in 14 different countries.
- 16How to reduce impacts of earthquakes.They cannot be predicted. Preparedness such as emergency plans, well trained and funded emergency services, warning systems and evac routes.
Use hazard resistant buildings, disaster kits and landuse planning. - 17Making buildings safe from earthquakes in a developed country.Foundations very deep but allow movement. Shock absorbers built into structure. Cross bracing to prevent floors collapsing.
- 18Making buildings safe from earthquakes in a developing country.Reduce weight of roofs. Use lightweight, hollow bricks. Strengthen wall corners with wire mesh and cement.
- 19Composite volcanoes...Steep-sided, small area with alternate layers of ash and lava. Viscous and sticky-flows slowly. Often freezes in central vent. Granitic or andesitic magma. Infrequent and unpredictable.
Example: Mount Pinatubo - 20Shield volcanoes...Gentle slopes with a large area, almost all lava. Fluid flows quickly from fissures. basaltic magma.Very frequent and gentle eruptions.
Example: Mauna Loa - 21Threats from volcanic eruptions.Gas inhalation and suffocation due to ash. Lava and magma.
- 22Primary social and economical impacts of volcanoes.Social: deaths, injuries and evacuations.
Economical: Villages destroyed, farm animals killed and cancellation of flights. - 23Secondary social and economical impacts of volcanoes.Social: Areas declared a danger zone meaning people cannot return to their homes. People spend weeks living in cramped emergency centres.
Economical: Farm lands abandoned, economic loses which severely reduce farming and tourism income. - 24Example of volcanic eruption (social)...Mount Merapi, Indonesia. Composite volcano that erupted in 2006 and 2010.
Primary social: 360000 evacuated, 275 killed, 570 injured
Secondary social: 10km declared danger zone, 2600 people unable to return. Living in emergency camps. - 25Example of volcanic eruption (economic)...Primary econocmic: several villages destroyed, 2000 farm animals killed and many flight cancellations.
Secondary economic: 1300 hectors of farmland abandoned, 600 million dollars of economic loses. - 26Predicting volcanoes...Gas emmissions, earth tremours and 'bulging' of volcanoe's flanks.
Example: 1991, 120000 evacuated from the area around Mount Pinatubo in the Phillipines before it erupted. - 27Preparedness and mitigation in a volcanic eruption...Emergency plans, well trained and funded emergency services, warning systems and evac routes.
Hazard resistant buildings, disaster kits and landuse planning. - 28Climate...the average weather conditions over 30 years
- 29how do we know that the climate has changed?fossils of animals and plants in regions are no longer in those regions today.
Glaciation in regions that are now free of ice.
Rocks showing us climate conditions when those rocks were formed.
Ice cores in Greenland show amount of CO2 that was in the atmosphere when the ice was formed. - 30Impacts of past climate change on the UK (the little ice age caused by reduced sunspot activity)Baltic sea froze over in winter, and also the Thames.
Sea ice reached as far south as Iceland.
Winters much colder and longer, reducing growing season,crop failures and famine, remote areas such as Greenland abandoned, price of grain increased and glaciers advanced in the Alps overrunning towns and farms. - 31Impacts of past climate change on the UK (extinction of the mega-fauna)Post of the little ice age, temperatures rapidly increased (5 in 1000 years)
Due to this 130 species of megafauna disappeared. e.g. giant beavers, mammoths and sabre toothed tigers.
Reasons: could not cope with climate change, with preferred food going. Humans hunting them or a combination of both. - 32Causes of climate change- volcanic eruptions...Large eruptions emit a lot of dust and gas such as sulfur dioxide. This then blocks/absorbs incoming solar radiation, so earth cools.
Example: Mount Pinuatubo 1991.
Large asteroid collisions have similar effects, they throw dust and ash into atmosphere. - 33Causes of climate change- sunspot activity...Dark area of sun surface, sign of greater solar activity. Come and go every 11 years. However longer periods when they weren't observed, e.g. the little ice age.
- 34Causes of climate change- changes in earth's orbit and rotation...Shape of earth orbit changes over period of 100,000 years (orbital eccentricity). Earth wobbles on axis over period of 26,000 years (precession). Tilt of axis varies between 21 and 24 over 40,000 years. These effects change amount of solar energy the earth's surface receives.
- 35past climate change- affecting people...In the little ice age winters were much colder and longer reducing growing season which lead to widespread crop failure and famine. Remote ares like Greenland were abandoned as survival became impossible. Price of grin increased leading to social unrest and revolt. Glaciers advanced in the Alps, overrunning towns and farms.
- 36greenhouse gases...retain heat from the sun that would otherwise be reflected from the earth's surface and back into space.
- 37Human activities increasing greenhouse gases...Burning fossil fuels such as gas, coal and oil and making cement and steel emits CO2.
Using transport which burns oil producing CO2.
Nitrous oxide produced by jet engines, fertilizers and sewage farms.
Cows produce methane gas as they graze. Humans stop greenhouse gases by being absorbed e.g. deforestation. - 38Sea level change...sea level rises due because of global warming. As temperature rises water expands. This thermal expansion takes place independently of melting ice.
Melting ice caps and glaciers. Could be a rise in sea level of between 300mm and 1000mm. - 39future global warming in Bangladesh- environmental impacts...more frequent and stronger cyclones in Bay of Bengal.
Rising sea levels erode erode country's coastal mangrove swamps.
Northwest Bangladesh could become more prone to drought. - 40future global warming in Bangladesh- economic impacts...flooding more common due to increased rainfall and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers, destroying crops and homes.
10% of land could be lost to rising sea levels, people then landless and short of food.
Severe water shortage, if monsoon rains fall, could lead to widespread famine. - 41future global warming in the UK- environmental impacts...New bird and animal species migrate to UK while other disappear.
Changes to fish species in the sea as temperature rises, e.g. cod moving north out of North Sea.
Increased storminess means more erosion on coats like Holderness. - 42future global warming in the UK- economic impacts...cost of protecting low lying ares like London from rising sea levels.
Costs to NHS of health problems caused by heat waves.
More frequent and costly flood events.
Domestic tourism increase.
Farmers will need to change crops and irrigation costs could rise.
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