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Questions in this quiz (30)
1What is the localization hypothesis?
- AIt is possible to find areas of the brain that control specific cognitive functions (memory, perception, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving etc).
- BCognitive Processes that are modulated by several other processes and structures.
- CThe overproduction of neurons during development
2Cite two techniques used in neuroscience (1 mark) and describe briefly what they are used for (2 marks)
- AMRI - Uses strong magnetic fields and radiowaves to produce detailed images inside the body
Magnetoencephalography - Records micro-magnetic changes caused by the brain electrical activity - BLateral corticospinal tract - info leaves the motor cortex, crosses to the opposite side of the brain hemisphere (contralateral pathway) and descends the spinal cord. It moves the digits and limbs on the opposite side.
Ventral Corticospinal tract - info leaves the motor cortex, decends the spinal cord along the same side of the brain hemisphere (ipsilateral pathway). It moves the midline muscles (body trunk) on the same side.
- AMRI - Uses strong magnetic fields and radiowaves to produce detailed images inside the body
3Present briefly three controversies with the localization hypothesis (1 mark each). Illustrate each controversy with an example (1 mark each)
- A• Demarcation of the brain structures is not clear. Areas of the brain gradually fade into one another and, therefore, overlap
• A brain region may be necessary but not sufficient for a particular cognitive process. Any but the simplest sensory or motor cognitive function involves large and widely distributed areas of the brain
• One structure can serve several cognitive processes: For example, in addition to fear, separate components of the amygdala are activated by things that have no relation to fear such as neutral and happy faces, erotic scenes or minor musical chords - B• Spina bifida: It is a failure of the neural tube back end to close completely leading to spinal cord anomaly associated with serious motor problems (and internal organs control).
• Anencephaly: It is a failure of the neural tube front end to close completely leading to a failure of the forebrain to develop and generally to the infants’ death soon after birth - C• Humans show more empathy for pain (face being pricked) in same-race individuals than in persons from other ethnic backgrounds (Diminished activation of the ACC and the frontal/insular cortex in the “other-race” condition)
• Lower activation in the fronto-insular and cingulate cortices (ACC) when observing a unfair player experiencing pain
• Participants were presented with descriptions of other people. dACC activation correlated with envy. Was higher when the described persons had similar personal attributes and superior qualities and abilities
- A• Demarcation of the brain structures is not clear. Areas of the brain gradually fade into one another and, therefore, overlap
44. Describe two types of abnormal development related to the neural tube (3 marks)
- A• A brain region may be necessary but not sufficient for a particular cognitive process. Any but the simplest sensory or motor cognitive function involves large and widely distributed areas of the brain
• A brain region may be neither necessary nor sufficient for a particular cognitive process. For instance, after a stroke certain patients may lose some cognitive functions which are then compensated by other areas of the brain - either in the same area in the opposite hemisphere or the area next to the damaged region. - B• Spina bifida: It is a failure of the neural tube back end to close completely leading to spinal cord anomaly associated with serious motor problems (and internal organs control).
• Anencephaly: It is a failure of the neural tube front end to close completely leading to a failure of the forebrain to develop and generally to the infants’ death soon after birth - C• The findings demonstrated that the same areas of the auditory cortex were active in both conditions, suggesting that even when there is NO auditory stimulus (but engaged in a purely visual task that is associated with speech/language), the same areas of our brain are activated. (2 marks)
• They also found that some brain areas were activated only in the silent condition, and hence suggest candidate areas for multisensory perception (vision/audition). (2 marks)
- A• A brain region may be necessary but not sufficient for a particular cognitive process. Any but the simplest sensory or motor cognitive function involves large and widely distributed areas of the brain
55. Name the 7 stages of brain development (0.5 mark each)
- A• Nuclei of the thalamus (VPM & VPL)
• Somatosensory cortices (SS1 and SS2)
• Nuclei of the thalamus
• The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
• The amygdala
• The anterior insular cortex (AI )
• Frontal cortex - B• Cell birth (neurogenesis)
• Cell migration
• Cell differentiation
• Cell Maturation (growth of dendrites and axons)
• Synaptogenesis (synapse formation )
• Cell death and synaptic pruning
• Myelogenesis (myeline formation) - C• Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dPFC)
• Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)
• Posterior cingulate cortex /precuneus (PCC)
• Superior temporal sulcus (STS) / temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
• Amygdala
• Anterior Cingulate cortex (ACC)
• Insula
- A• Nuclei of the thalamus (VPM & VPL)
66. What are the neurotrophic factors? (1 mark)
- AThe overproduction of neurons during development results in the death of certain cell and a synaptic pruning. This is the outcome of competition among neurons for connections and metabolic resources in their neural environment.
- B• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
- CChemical compounds that act to support growth and differentiation in developing neurons and keep certain neurons alive in adulthood
77. Describe the Neural Darwinism hypothesis (2 marks). What are the mechanisms involved (2 marks)
- AThe overproduction of neurons during development results in the death of certain cell and a synaptic pruning. This is the outcome of competition among neurons for connections and metabolic resources in their neural environment.
- B• Humans show more empathy for pain (face being pricked) in same-race individuals than in persons from other ethnic backgrounds (Diminished activation of the ACC and the frontal/insular cortex in the “other-race” condition)
- CIn cases where there is a direct observation of another in pain, i.e. not when imagining it, the somatosensory cortex is involved, too
88. What are the main prenatal and postnatal characteristics of the chemoaffinity hypothesis (2 marks)
- A• The McGurk effect is where the watching of an individual’s lip movements influences how we perceive the sound they produce (1 mark).
• In the original study, an auditory “ba” presented with the mouth movements of “ga” is perceived by the listener as a completely different syllable, “da”. (1 mark).
• Interestingly however, when we close our eyes and just listen to the sound, the illusion disappears, i.e. we just here the actual sounds (“ba”). (1 mark)
• What this tells us: That in certain situations vision dominates over audition (1mark) - B• Prenatally, axons and dendrites are mainly drawn toward a signalling chemical that indicate the correct pathway.
• Postnatally a fine tuning of connections proceeds depending on their activity (e.g. if simultaneously activated by external stimulation)
- A• The McGurk effect is where the watching of an individual’s lip movements influences how we perceive the sound they produce (1 mark).
99. Describe the McGurk effect and what this tells us about visual/auditory dominance
(4 marks)- A• The McGurk effect is where the watching of an individual’s lip movements influences how we perceive the sound they produce (1 mark).
• In the original study, an auditory “ba” presented with the mouth movements of “ga” is perceived by the listener as a completely different syllable, “da”. (1 mark).
• Interestingly however, when we close our eyes and just listen to the sound, the illusion disappears, i.e. we just here the actual sounds (“ba”). (1 mark)
• What this tells us: That in certain situations vision dominates over audition (1mark) - B• They found that odours were rated as more pleasant in the presence of a congruent sound (1 mark).
• The study found that the odour of potato crisp was rated as more pleasant in the presence of a congruent (crunch sound) versus an incongruent or no sound condition, with a similar effect for the odour of coffee (2 marks)
• The study tells us that in judgements of odour pleasantness, we can be influenced by stimuli from a completely different modality (audition) and that the extent of that influence depends on the congruent nature of the sound (2 marks) - C• Brain area: Angular Gyrus (0.5 mark); Auditory Cortex (0.5mark)
• The findings demonstrated that the same areas of the auditory cortex were active in both conditions, suggesting that even when there is NO auditory stimulus (but engaged in a purely visual task that is associated with speech/language), the same areas of our brain are activated. (2 marks)
• They also found that some brain areas were activated only in the silent condition, and hence suggest candidate areas for multisensory perception (vision/audition). (2 marks)
- A• The McGurk effect is where the watching of an individual’s lip movements influences how we perceive the sound they produce (1 mark).
1010. Calvert et al., (1997) study on Multisensory Perception examined differences in fMRI activity in listening to real speech versus silent speech (silently mouthing words). What did the findings suggest and what brain area did this highlight in terms of mapping visually presented stimuli to their relevant linguistic representations? (5 marks)
- A• The ACC and the AI which are involved in empathy and moral judgment contain “von Economo neuron” (VEN)
• Humans reach the greatest numbers relative to other pyramidal neurons of VENs compared to other apes
• The VENs are less abundant or show morphological anomalies in individuals with empathy difficulties : autism, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, Frontotemporal dementia....
• VENs are more abundant in psychotic patients who died of suicide, suggesting that they may have a role in the processing of emotional pain of self and others - B• Brain area: Angular Gyrus (0.5 mark); Auditory Cortex (0.5mark)
• The findings demonstrated that the same areas of the auditory cortex were active in both conditions, suggesting that even when there is NO auditory stimulus (but engaged in a purely visual task that is associated with speech/language), the same areas of our brain are activated. (2 marks)
• They also found that some brain areas were activated only in the silent condition, and hence suggest candidate areas for multisensory perception (vision/audition). (2 marks) - C• They found that odours were rated as more pleasant in the presence of a congruent sound (1 mark).
• The study found that the odour of potato crisp was rated as more pleasant in the presence of a congruent (crunch sound) versus an incongruent or no sound condition, with a similar effect for the odour of coffee (2 marks)
• The study tells us that in judgements of odour pleasantness, we can be influenced by stimuli from a completely different modality (audition) and that the extent of that influence depends on the congruent nature of the sound (2 marks)
- A• The ACC and the AI which are involved in empathy and moral judgment contain “von Economo neuron” (VEN)
1111. In Seo & Hummel ‘s(2011) study (exp1), odour perception was measured whilst individuals listened to odour-congruent versus odour-incongruent sounds. What were the main findings and what does this tell us about Multisensory Perception? (5 marks)
- A• They found that odours were rated as more pleasant in the presence of a congruent sound (1 mark).
• The study found that the odour of potato crisp was rated as more pleasant in the presence of a congruent (crunch sound) versus an incongruent or no sound condition, with a similar effect for the odour of coffee (2 marks)
• The study tells us that in judgements of odour pleasantness, we can be influenced by stimuli from a completely different modality (audition) and that the extent of that influence depends on the congruent nature of the sound (2 marks) - B• Brain area: Angular Gyrus (0.5 mark); Auditory Cortex (0.5mark)
• The findings demonstrated that the same areas of the auditory cortex were active in both conditions, suggesting that even when there is NO auditory stimulus (but engaged in a purely visual task that is associated with speech/language), the same areas of our brain are activated. (2 marks)
• They also found that some brain areas were activated only in the silent condition, and hence suggest candidate areas for multisensory perception (vision/audition). (2 marks) - C• The McGurk effect is where the watching of an individual’s lip movements influences how we perceive the sound they produce (1 mark).
• In the original study, an auditory “ba” presented with the mouth movements of “ga” is perceived by the listener as a completely different syllable, “da”. (1 mark).
• Interestingly however, when we close our eyes and just listen to the sound, the illusion disappears, i.e. we just here the actual sounds (“ba”). (1 mark)
• What this tells us: That in certain situations vision dominates over audition (1mark)
- A• They found that odours were rated as more pleasant in the presence of a congruent sound (1 mark).
1212. Describe the main types of somatosensory perception (3 marks)
- A• Empathy for pain (ACC, AI) - In cases where there is a direct observation of another in pain, i.e. not when imagining it, the somatosensory cortex is involved, too
• Humans show more empathy for pain (face being pricked) in same-race individuals than in persons from other ethnic backgrounds (Diminished activation of the ACC and the frontal/insular cortex in the “other-race” condition)
• Lower activation in the fronto-insular and cingulate cortices (ACC) when observing a unfair player experiencing pain - B• Nociception : Perception of pain and temperature
• Hapsis : Perception of touch; pressure and vibrations
• Proprioception : Perception of location and body movements - C• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
• The currently popular view is based on the synchronization of neuron’s firing rates in the various areas of visual cortex involved in neural processing.
- A• Empathy for pain (ACC, AI) - In cases where there is a direct observation of another in pain, i.e. not when imagining it, the somatosensory cortex is involved, too
1313. Describe the two main somatosensory pathways and the information they carry (6 marks)
- A• One structure can serve several cognitive processes: For example, in addition to fear, separate components of the amygdala are activated by things that have no relation to fear such as neutral and happy faces, erotic scenes or minor musical chords
• Each cognitive process is modulated by several other processes and structures : For example fear is modulated by other processes such as attentiveness, expectations and Mental sets - B• Synchronise movement and perceptions
• Develop/maintain precision (Error correction : compare movements planned vs executed and correct both of them) - C• The Dorsal spinothalamic tract which carries haptic and proprioceptive information:
Information goes from the receptor to the dorsal-root ganglion, ascends in the ipsilateral (same side) spinal cord to the thalamus and then to the somatosensory cortex.
• The Ventral spinothalamic tract which carries nociceptive information:
Information goes from the receptor to the dorsal-root ganglion, crosses immediately to the contralateral side and ascends in the spinal cord to the thalamus and then to the somatosensory cortex.
- A• One structure can serve several cognitive processes: For example, in addition to fear, separate components of the amygdala are activated by things that have no relation to fear such as neutral and happy faces, erotic scenes or minor musical chords
1414. Describe the two main corticospinal pathways and their functions (6 marks)
- A• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
• The currently popular view is based on the synchronization of neuron’s firing rates in the various areas of visual cortex involved in neural processing. - B• Lateral corticospinal tract: Information leaves the motor cortex, crosses to the opposite side of the brain hemisphere (contralateral pathway) and descends the spinal cord. It moves the digits and limbs on the opposite side.
• Ventral corticospinal tract: Information leaves the motor cortex, descends the spinal cord along the same side of the brain hemisphere (ipsilateral pathway). It moves the midline muscles (body trunk) on same side - C• Anterior Cingulate cortex (ACC)
• Insula
- A• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
1515. Describe the two main functions of the cerebellum (0.5 mark each)
- A• Synchronise movement and perceptions
• Develop/maintain precision (Error correction : compare movements planned vs executed and correct both of them) - B• Tell position of body in relation to gravity
• Signal changes in direction and speed of head movements - C• Prenatally, axons and dendrites are mainly drawn toward a signalling chemical that indicate the correct pathway.
• Postnatally a fine tuning of connections proceeds depending on their activity (e.g. if simultaneously activated by external stimulation)
- A• Synchronise movement and perceptions
1616. Describe the two main functions of the vestibular system (0.5 mark each)
- A• Hapsis : Perception of touch; pressure and vibrations
• Proprioception : Perception of location and body movements - B• Participants were presented with descriptions of other people. dACC activation correlated with envy. Was higher when the described persons had similar personal attributes and superior qualities and abilities
• Observing unintentional harm is associated with activation of the pain matrix - C• Tell position of body in relation to gravity
• Signal changes in direction and speed of head movements
- A• Hapsis : Perception of touch; pressure and vibrations
1717. Cite two brain structures involved in the pain matrix (2 marks) and describe two experiments on empathy involving the activation of at least one of them (4 marks)
- AThe anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
Lower activation in the fronto-insular and cingulate cortices (ACC) when observing a unfair player experiencing pain
• The anterior insular cortex (AI )
Empathy for pain (ACC, AI) - In cases where there is a direct observation of another in pain, i.e. not when imagining it, the somatosensory cortex is involved, too - B• Increased DLPFC activity (moral reasoning) is associated with:
The impersonal moral dilemmas, relative to “personal” ones
Harms caused through action, as opposed to inaction - C• Paleomammalian (or limbic system): greater environmental reactions, deal with emotional responses
• Neomammalian brain (or neocortex): flexibility in thought and executive control
- AThe anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
1818. Give two reasons suggesting that “von Economo neurons” may have a special role in processing complex social emotions and interoception (4 marks)
- A- Humans reach the greatest numbers relative to other pyramidal neurons of VENs compared to other apes
- VENs are more abundant in psychotic patients who died of suicide, suggesting that they may have a role in the processing of emotional pain of self and others - B• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
• The currently popular view is based on the synchronization of neuron’s firing rates in the various areas of visual cortex involved in neural processing.
- A- Humans reach the greatest numbers relative to other pyramidal neurons of VENs compared to other apes
1919. Name two brain structures involved in moral judgement (1 mark each) and describe two studies which demonstrate activation of at least one of these brain structures (2 marks each)
- A• Anterior Cingulate cortex (ACC) - With high-conflict personal dilemma (e.g. crying baby dilemma) or if we promised the potential victim that he would not be run over; Utilitarian judgement required to override a prepotent, countervailing emotional response. These casee are associated with :
increased activity in the ACC
increased activity in the DLPFC
• Amygdala - Experimenters showed to participants either appropriate (harming an enemy, helping a distressed person) or inappropriate (helping an enemy, harming a distressed person) behaviours. Appropriate behaviour (whether violent or compassionate) was associated with increased activity in the :
Amygdala
VMPFCrain11 - B• Anterior Cingulate cortex (ACC) - The ACC and the AI which are involved in empathy and moral judgment contain “von Economo neuron” (VEN)
• Insula - Humans reach the greatest numbers relative to other pyramidal neurons of VENs compared to other apes
- A• Anterior Cingulate cortex (ACC) - With high-conflict personal dilemma (e.g. crying baby dilemma) or if we promised the potential victim that he would not be run over; Utilitarian judgement required to override a prepotent, countervailing emotional response. These casee are associated with :
2020. What is the binding problem? What is the current popular approach? (1 mark each)
- A• All mental processes that lead to behaviour occur in the brain, including those in “psychiatric disorders”
• Genes and resulting proteins determine inter-neuronal connections, hence exert influence over behaviour and therefore contribute to development of major “mental illnesses”. - B• Metaphors are frequently used by artists and they are so appealing to us because we still have latent leftover effects.
• This could also be regarded as a problem with binding when irrelevant brain areas are involved in synchronous firing of neurons in various areas - C• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
• The currently popular view is based on the synchronization of neuron’s firing rates in the various areas of visual cortex involved in neural processing.
- A• All mental processes that lead to behaviour occur in the brain, including those in “psychiatric disorders”
2121. Provide a simple argument why the naming “mirror neurons” is misleading (3 marks).
- ASome mirror neurons are less specific and respond to a far broader range of observed movements.
Some mirror neurons that are activated by the sound of a particular movement.
Some show mirror suppression – that is their activity is reduced during action observation. - B• The lack of inhibition is the likely reason for the cross links between different modalities.
• Metaphors are frequently used by artists and they are so appealing to us because we still have latent leftover effects.
• This could also be regarded as a problem with binding when irrelevant brain areas are involved in synchronous firing of neurons in various areas - CMemory storage in cortex is modulated by emotional events. Epinephrine and norepinephrine enhance amygdala activity. Mild stress therefore improves memory consolidation.
- ASome mirror neurons are less specific and respond to a far broader range of observed movements.
2222. What is synaesthesia? 1 marks).
- AThe ventral belt is involved in emotional processing (orbital and medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala) while the cognitive one is involved in the cognitive processing (Hippocampus, Fornix, mammillary body).
- BNeurological condition in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway.
- C• Stimuli describing moral/social transgressions committed in the presence of an audience elicited increased activity in the Amygdala: Amygdala and VMPCF involved in the social regulation of transgressive behaviour
2323. What may be the reasons behind synaesthesia in artists? (3 marks).
- A• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
• The currently popular view is based on the synchronization of neuron’s firing rates in the various areas of visual cortex involved in neural processing. - B• Reptilian brain (or brainstem): core mechanism for survival)
• Paleomammalian (or limbic system): greater environmental reactions, deal with emotional responses
• Neomammalian brain (or neocortex): flexibility in thought and executive control - C• The lack of inhibition is the likely reason for the cross links between different modalities.
• Metaphors are frequently used by artists and they are so appealing to us because we still have latent leftover effects.
• This could also be regarded as a problem with binding when irrelevant brain areas are involved in synchronous firing of neurons in various areas
- A• Human information processing (e.g., vision) is based on fragmenting the information before these fragments are unified in our internal experience. How these fragments (aspects of visual information) are bound together is the so-called binding – problem.
2424. What is the triune brain? (3 marks)
- A• Reptilian brain (or brainstem): core mechanism for survival)
• Paleomammalian (or limbic system): greater environmental reactions, deal with emotional responses
• Neomammalian brain (or neocortex): flexibility in thought and executive control - B• The lack of inhibition is the likely reason for the cross links between different modalities.
• Metaphors are frequently used by artists and they are so appealing to us because we still have latent leftover effects.
• This could also be regarded as a problem with binding when irrelevant brain areas are involved in synchronous firing of neurons in various areas - C• Regulation of cortico-limbic circuits,
• Inhibition of neurotransmitter systems and monoamine neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine),
• Endocrinological pathways
- A• Reptilian brain (or brainstem): core mechanism for survival)
2525. Explain the difference between the ventral and dorsal belts of the limbic system (2 marks)
- ANeurological condition in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway.
- BThe ventral belt is involved in emotional processing (orbital and medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala) while the cognitive one is involved in the cognitive processing (Hippocampus, Fornix, mammillary body).
- CInhibition of neurotransmitter systems and monoamine neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine),
2626. How does the memory modulation hypothesis involve the amygdala? (3 marks)
- AMemory storage in cortex is modulated by emotional events. Epinephrine and norepinephrine enhance amygdala activity. Mild stress therefore improves memory consolidation.
- BGenes and resulting proteins determine inter-neuronal connections, hence exert influence over behaviour and therefore contribute to development of major “mental illnesses”.
- CHumans reach the greatest numbers relative to other pyramidal neurons of VENs compared to other apes
2727. Identify two different mechanisms which are claimed to be responsible for the mechanism of electroconvulsive therapy (2marks).
- A• Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dPFC)
• Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) - B• Endocrinological pathways
• Neurogenesis - C• The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
• The amygdala
- A• Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dPFC)
2828. Identify two of the adverse side effects of popular “anti-depressant” drugs (2marks).
- A• Nausea
• Sexual dysfunction - B• Feeling well
• Sexual enhancement - C• Sudden death
• Stress
- A• Nausea
2929. Name two of the areas of the brain that have been targeted in psychotherapeutic interventions to promote ‘positive neuroplasticity' (2marks).
- A• Superior temporal sulcus (STS) / temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
• Amygdala - B• Amygdala.
• Hippocampus - C• Hypothalamus
• Amygdala
- A• Superior temporal sulcus (STS) / temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
3030. Describe three principles identified by Eric Kandel (1998) in his framework for the relationship between psychotherapy, gene expression and brain plasticity (2 marks each)
- A• All mental processes that lead to behaviour occur in the brain, including those in “psychiatric disorders”
• Behaviour and social factors affect the brain by feeding back upon it to modify the expression of genes and thus the function of nerve cells. Learning, including learning that results in dysfunctional behaviour, produces alterations in gene expression
If psychotherapy or counselling is effective and produces long-term changes in behaviour, it presumably does so through learning, by producing changes in gene expression that altering the strength of synaptic connections and structural changes that alter the anatomical pattern of interconnections between nerve cells of the brain. - B• The lack of inhibition is the likely reason for the cross links between different modalities.
• Metaphors are frequently used by artists and they are so appealing to us because we still have latent leftover effects.
Alterations in gene expression induced by learning give rise to changes in patterns of neuronal connections. These changes not only contribute to the biological basis of individuality but presumably are responsible for initiating and maintaining abnormalities of behaviour that are induced by social contingencies.” - C• Genes and resulting proteins determine inter-neuronal connections, hence exert influence over behaviour and therefore contribute to development of major “mental illnesses”.
• Prenatally, axons and dendrites are mainly drawn toward a signalling chemical that indicate the correct pathway.
• Postnatally a fine tuning of connections proceeds depending on their activity (e.g. if simultaneously activated by external stimulation)
- A• All mental processes that lead to behaviour occur in the brain, including those in “psychiatric disorders”
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- Quiz on ntb1, created by DAKOTA GIBBONS on 06/12/2017.
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- DAKOTA GIBBONS
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