Marxism

Overview: Marxism is a socio-economic and political ideology that analyzes society through the lens of class conflict and critiques capitalism. It examines how the economic system shapes social structures and individual behaviors.
Capitalism: - Marxism views capitalism as a system that encourages consumption to make profit. - It can lead to corporate crime, where the pursuit of profit can come at the cost of human lives. - The Ford Pinto case exemplifies how the quest for profit within capitalism can lead to criminal behavior.
Class Conflict: - Marxism sees criminality as a product of capitalism, rooted in class conflict. - The text implies a "Dog Eat Dog mentality" bred by capitalism, which promotes selfishness.
Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat: - The text mentions the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat (the working class) as key opposing forces within capitalist society. - The proletariat often experiences the negative consequences of capitalist practices.

Eysenck's Personality Theory

Overview: Eysenck's personality theory proposes that personality traits, particularly extroversion and neuroticism, can predict criminal behavior. This theory suggests that certain personality types are more prone to committing crimes.
Extroversion: - Extroverts are sociable, optimistic, and excitement-seeking, which can lead to risk-taking behaviors. - Extroverted individuals might be impulsive and less likely to consider the consequences of their actions.
Neuroticism: - Neurotic individuals tend to have high anxiety levels. - High neuroticism can make it harder to learn from mistakes or be conditioned through punishment.
Recidivism: - Eysenck's theory can be used to explain repeat offenders, such as Simon. - The combination of extroverted and neurotic traits may make individuals more likely to engage in criminal behavior and reoffend.

Labeling Theory

Overview: Labeling theory examines how societal reactions and labels influence individual behavior, especially in the context of deviance and crime. It posits that being labeled as a deviant can lead to further deviance through processes like master status and self-fulfilling prophecy.
Master Status: The context describes how teachers label Eddie, which then becomes his master status. This implies that the label of "thick" or "troublemaker" becomes the primary way he is viewed and treated, overshadowing other aspects of his identity.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The theory suggests that when individuals internalize labels, it influences their actions. In Eddie's case, accepting the school's view of him ("thick") creates a self-fulfilling prophecy, potentially leading to behaviors that confirm that label.
Deviant Subculture: Eddie joins a deviant subculture, which reacts to societal norms through deviance. This concept explains how individuals, after being labeled, may find acceptance and validation within groups that share similar experiences of being labeled as outsiders, further reinforcing their deviant behavior.

Attachment Theory

Overview: Attachment Theory, primarily developed by John Bowlby, explores the impact of early childhood relationships and experiences on an individual's emotional and psychological development, particularly focusing on the significance of a secure and stable attachment with a primary caregiver.
Maternal Deprivation: - Key concept within Attachment Theory, it highlights the negative effects of separation from a mother or primary caregiver during early childhood. - Consequences can include emotional and psychological difficulties, potentially leading to issues such as affectionless psychopathy - The case studies illustrate how separation and absent parents can lead to a failure to form successful attachments.
Affectionless Psychopathy: - Defined by an inability to experience empathy or remorse. - It's linked to maternal deprivation and unstable early attachments. - Individuals with this condition may exhibit criminal behavior and struggle to form meaningful relationships. - The case studies presented show how these early attachment failures can be linked to later criminal behavior.

Social Learning Theory

Overview: Social Learning Theory, proposed by Bandura, suggests that individuals learn behaviors by observing and imitating others, especially when those behaviors are positively reinforced. This theory emphasizes the role of models and the influence of social context on learning.
Imitation: - Individuals learn by observing and mimicking the behaviors of others. - The likelihood of imitation is influenced by factors such as the perceived rewards and consequences experienced by the model.
Models: - Models are individuals whose behaviors are observed and potentially imitated. - Models can be people admired or respected by the observer. - The characteristics of models (e.g., status, competence) influence the extent of imitation.
Positive Reinforcement: - If a model's behavior is positively reinforced (rewarded), observers are more likely to imitate that behavior. - Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the observed behavior will be repeated by the observer.

Criminality Theories

Overview: Criminality theories are used to analyze and understand criminal behavior by applying different theoretical perspectives to various case studies and scenarios. The theories can be used to identify the crime or crimes and criminal behavior within the scenarios and understand the possible causes.
Biological Theories: - Focus: Examine the biological factors contributing to criminal behavior. - Sub-Categories: Physiological, Genetic, Brain Injuries, Disorders, and Biochemical. - Key Figures/Theories: Lombroso's Theory, Sheldon's Theory, XYY, Twin and adoption studies.
Individualistic Theories: - Focus: Explore individual psychological processes and personality traits related to criminality. - Sub-Categories: Psychodynamic, Psychological, and Learning Theories. - Key Figures/Theories: Freud, Bolby (Psychodynamic), Eysenck, Bandura (Learning Theory).
Sociological Theories: - Focus: Investigate how societal structures and interactions influence criminal behavior. - Key Figures/Theories: Durkheim and Merton (Functionalism), Marxism, Interactionism (Labeling theory), Left and Right Realism.

Exam Style Examples

Overview: This section focuses on applying criminal theories to real-life and exam-style scenarios to analyze criminality. The approach involves understanding various crimes and behaviors and linking them to relevant theories.
Eddie's Case: The context does not provide a case study or any information about Eddie, so no information can be derived.
Darren's Case: - Possible link to frontal lobe damage due to an injury, and its connection to violence and short temper.
Simon's Case: - Simon is an opportunist thief. - The case could be analyzed using various criminal theories.
Sharon's Case: - Sharon's background involves chaotic home life, neglect, and parental involvement in criminal activities and substance abuse. - She experienced emotional withdrawal and was placed in foster care.

Strain Theory

Overview: Strain theory, primarily associated with Robert Merton, posits that societal structures and cultural goals can create strain, leading individuals to resort to illegitimate means to achieve success. This theory explains deviance as a result of the disconnect between culturally prescribed goals and the legitimate means to achieve them.
Innovation: - Individuals accept societal goals (e.g., wealth) but reject legitimate means to achieve them. - Example: Shoplifting to obtain desired goods when legitimate opportunities are limited.
Illegitimate Means: - The use of criminal or deviant behavior to achieve societal goals. - Arises when legitimate opportunities are blocked, creating a strain. - Example: Employing shoplifting as a way to obtain desired goods.
Relative Deprivation: - A sense of lacking compared to others, leading to feelings of discontent and potential deviance. - Can drive individuals to crime when they perceive a gap between their aspirations and their actual circumstances. - Example: Darren's shoplifting is linked to his perception of not having access to branded clothing and footwear, as advertised, due to his limited financial resources.

Right Realism

Overview: Right Realism views crime as a rational choice made by individuals who weigh the risks and rewards of offending. It emphasizes the role of opportunity and the lack of effective social controls in causing crime.
Rational Choice Theory:
- Offenders assess risks versus rewards before committing crimes.
- Criminals are rational actors seeking to maximize their gains.
- Crime occurs when the perceived benefits outweigh the potential costs (e.g., getting caught).
Opportunist Criminals:
- Criminals are often opportunistic, seeking out immediate gains.
- They look for opportunities to commit crimes when targets are vulnerable.
- This includes instances when security is low or when the potential for easy escape is high.
Risk vs Reward:
- Right Realism focuses on the balance between the risks and rewards of committing a crime.
- The absence of capable guardians (e.g., security guards) increases the likelihood of crime.
- The theory suggests that increasing the risks (e.g., surveillance, harsher penalties) can deter crime.

Analyzing Criminality

Overview: Analyzing Criminality involves applying various theories of criminality to real-world scenarios, case studies, and exam-style situations. This includes identifying crimes, understanding criminal behavior, and explaining the possible causes through the lens of criminological theories.
Applying Criminality Theories:
- Apply theoretical knowledge from previous modules.
- Link theories to specific cases or scenarios.
- Explain how a theory applies to a given situation.
Case Studies:
- Analyze real-life cases.
- Apply criminological theories to understand the cases.
- Examples: Darren's case (frontal lobe damage), Simon's case (opportunistic thief).
Exam Scenarios:
- Practice with exam-type scenarios.
- Unpack stimulus materials provided in exams.
- Identify the crime and criminal behavior within the scenarios.
Crime Identification:
- Recognize a wide range of crimes (crimes against property, white-collar crimes, etc.).
- Identify the specific crime or crimes in a given scenario.
Criminal Behavior Analysis:
- Analyze criminal behavior patterns.
- Understand possible causes of criminal behavior by applying theories.
- Examples: Darren's short-temper linked to frontal lobe damage, Simon's impulsive behavior and risk-taking.

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AC 1.2 Explain The Social Construction Of Crime (Updated 2022)