Criminal Behavior Overview: Criminal behavior encompasses actions forbidden by criminal law, involving both a guilty act (actus reus) and a guilty mind (mens rea), with some exceptions like strict liability. Crime challenges societal norms and values, leading to state intervention and punishment. Legal Definition of Crime: - Criminal behavior is any action forbidden by criminal law. - For an action to be considered a crime, it generally requires two elements: actus reus (guilty act) and mens rea ( guilty mind/intention). Actus Reus and Mens Rea: - Actus Reus: The guilty act itself; the action must be illegal and wrong. - Mens Rea: The guilty mind; the intention or mental state behind the act, demonstrating bad intentions. - Both actus reus and mens rea must be present for an act to be considered a crime. Strict Liability: - There are exceptions where mens rea is not required. - Strict liability involves criminal liability for specific actions regardless of intent. Self-Defense: - (Information not provided in the context) Sanctions Overview: Sanctions are mechanisms used to enforce social control and encourage conformity to societal norms, categorized into formal and informal types, and can be either positive (rewards) or negative (punishments). Formal Sanctions: - Imposed by official bodies like police or courts. - Include punishments for breaking laws or rules. - Examples include fines for theft or exclusion from school for bullying. Informal Sanctions: - Unspoken ways of showing disapproval for breaking unwritten rules. - Examples include being ignored, receiving dirty looks, or being told off. Positive Sanctions: - Rewards for behavior that society approves of. - Examples include star charts for children, medals for sports achievements, or praise for good behavior. Social Control: - The ways society controls behavior to ensure conformity to its norms. - This can involve formal and informal control mechanisms. - Examples include CCTV cameras and speed cameras, designed to make people behave and abide by societal norms. Deviance Overview: Deviance challenges societal norms and values, encompassing behaviors that differ from what is considered acceptable. It includes various acts, with crime being a specific type of deviance, and it's understood through the lens of social norms, values, and moral codes. Definition of Deviance: Deviance is behavior that differs from the norms of society, offending against moral codes and values. Mores: Mores reflect the moral codes, basic sets of rules, values, and principles held by an individual, group, organization, or society. Crime as a Type of Deviance: Crime is a specific type of deviance, defined as acts that break the law. Not all crimes are considered serious or deviant by all members of society. Examples of Deviant Behavior: Examples of deviant behavior are actions that are against the norm of society. The examples will vary based on the society in question and can evolve over time. Positive Deviance: Not mentioned in the provided context. Formal Sanctions Overview: Formal sanctions are punishments imposed by official bodies, like courts or schools, for breaking laws or rules. These sanctions are distinct from informal sanctions, which are unspoken expressions of disapproval. This outline covers the four main categories of formal sanctions: custodial sentences, community sentences, fines, and discharge. Custodial Sentences: - These are sentences that involve imprisonment Community Sentences: - Fines: - Financial penalties imposed based on the severity of the offense and the offender's ability to pay. - Can be paid in installments. Discharge: - Either conditional or unconditional. - Conditional discharge requires no further offenses for a specified period; if violated, the court can impose a sentence for the original and new offenses. - Unconditional discharge is given when the trauma of arrest and charging is considered sufficient punishment. Implications of Criminal Acts Overview: Committing a criminal act can lead to several serious consequences, including occupational restrictions, registration on specific lists, travel bans, and limitations on various rights and activities. These implications aim to protect society and may vary depending on the nature and severity of the crime. Occupational Restrictions: Individuals may be prohibited from certain professions, especially those involving work with vulnerable groups like children. Example: Teachers and other professionals working with young people are subject to background checks. Violent Sex Offenders Register: Placement on a register, which can impose limitations on activities and locations. Travel Bans: Criminal records can result in travel restrictions, potentially preventing entry into certain countries, such as the United States. Other Restrictions: Limitations may be placed on activities such as adoption, jury service, and running for political office. Individuals must disclose unspent convictions when applying for insurance, and failure to do so can invalidate the insurance. Police Sanctions Overview: Police sanctions are formal punishments issued by law enforcement for minor offenses, serving as an alternative to court proceedings. These sanctions include cautions, conditional cautions, and penalty notices, each designed to address different types of infractions. Cautions: - Warnings issued by the police to individuals aged 10 or older. - Typically given for minor crimes, such as graffiti. Conditional Cautions: - Involve adherence to specific rules and restrictions. - Examples include attending drug treatment for substance abuse. - Failure to comply with the conditions results in charges. Penalty Notices: - Issued for offenses such as shoplifting or possession of cannabis. - An example is a fine for using a mobile phone while driving, which also results in points on the driver's license. Values and Norms Overview: Values are general principles defining right and wrong, while norms are specific rules or standards of behavior within a society. Both are crucial in understanding crime and deviance, as they shape social expectations and behaviors. Definition of Values: - General principles or guidelines for life. - Define what is considered right, wrong, good, and bad. - Examples include respect for human life, democracy, rule of law, individual liberty, and respect and tolerance. Definition of Norms: - Specific rules or socially accepted standards. - Govern people's behavior in particular situations. - Linked to the values of a society. - Can be explicit (laws) or implicit (unwritten rules). Types of Norms: - Norms can be explicit, such as laws, or implicit, such as unwritten rules. - Norms can differ from culture to culture. Societal Norms: - What is considered "normal" behavior within a society. - Examples include queuing, saying please and thank you. - Norms are learned by growing up in a particular culture. Norms and Deviant Behavior: - Norms aim to prevent deviant behavior. - Deviance is violating social norms. - What is deviant varies across societies. - Deviance offends against norms, moral codes, and values held by society.

Laws Applied Differently According to Circumstances Overview: Laws can be applied differently based on circumstances, including age of the offender, the nature of the crime, and available defenses. This highlights the social construction of crime and how it varies across cultures and evolves over time. Age of Criminal Responsibility: - Definition: The age at which a person can be held legally responsible for their actions and be prosecuted for a crime. - Variations Across the World: - America : Zero - UK: 10 - Canada: 12 - China: 16 Manslaughter vs. Murder: - Context: Circumstances where the actus reus (guilty act) and mens rea (guilty mind) for murder exist, but the law allows for a reduced charge of manslaughter. - Examples of Mitigating Circumstances: Diminished responsibility or acting under a loss of self-control. - Impact: Results in a reduced sentence compared to the mandatory life sentence for murder. Defenses (Consent, Self-Defense, Automatism): - Types of Defenses: - Consent: Permission was provided by the appropriate person for the crime to occur. - Self-Defense: Acting to protect oneself from harm. - Automatism: The defendant was not in control of their actions. - Outcome: If successful, these defenses can lead to a "not guilty" plea. Factors Influencing Changes in Homosexuality Laws Overview: Societal attitudes toward homosexuality have changed significantly, leading to changes in laws regarding homosexuality. These changes are influenced by shifting societal views, celebrity influence, and the efforts of pressure groups and campaigns. Changing Societal Attitudes: Homosexuality is no longer widely seen as deviant. Societal acceptance of homosexuality has increased. Changing views on deviance often lead to changes in the law. Celebrity Influence: High-profile celebrities coming out as openly gay have influenced attitude changes. Open discussions of homosexuality in the media, for example, Boy George, and Elton John, increased acceptance. Pressure Groups and Campaigns: Gay Pride events and organizations such as Stonewall have raised awareness. These campaigns have contributed to changing attitudes and legislative changes. Social Construction of Crime Overview: The social construction of crime posits that what society defines as criminal varies across cultures and changes over time, reflecting societal values rather than inherent wrongness. This is exemplified by examining how laws differ globally and have evolved within the UK. Crime vs. Deviance: - Crime is defined by society as illegal, while deviance is any behavior that violates social norms - The distinction is key to understanding that crime is socially constructed because what is considered deviant may not always be criminal, and vice versa Examples of Legal Activities in the UK but Illegal Elsewhere: - Polygamy - Honor crimes - Selling cannabis - Assisted suicide - Vagrancy - Corporal punishment - Female genital mutilation Examples of Illegal Activities in the UK but Legal Elsewhere: - Adultery - Homosexuality - Jaywalking - Prostitution - Abortion Examples of Activities Formerly Illegal but Now Legal in the UK: - Homosexuality - Abortion Examples of Activities Formerly Legal but Now Illegal in the UK: - Slavery - Corporal punishment - Driving without a seatbelt Laws Changing from Culture to Culture Overview: Laws vary significantly across cultures, influenced by factors like religion, tradition, and societal norms. These differences are evident in laws concerning marriage, sexual conduct, and societal values. Polygamy: - Polygamy, the practice of having multiple spouses, is legal in some cultures, particularly in certain African and Muslim societies. - Polygyny (one man, multiple wives) is legal in 58 countries, while polyandry (one woman, multiple husbands) is rare. Adultery: - Adultery, sexual acts between married individuals and someone other than their spouse, is legal in most countries. - Criminalized in Muslim-majority countries and some African Christian-majority nations, reflecting religious influence. - Often reflects societal views on women, where laws may be unequal. Homosexuality: - Homosexuality's legality varies significantly, influenced by religious and societal views. - Illegal in 70 countries, with potential death penalties in some, and banned promotion in others (e.g., Russia). - Religious condemnation, particularly by Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, contributes to criminalization. Religion's Influence: - Religion strongly influences laws, particularly regarding adultery and homosexuality. - Countries with strong religious influence tend to have laws against behaviors that their religions condemn. Tradition's Influence: - Tradition is a key influence, especially when combined with religion. Homosexuality Laws in the UK: A Case Study Overview: This case study examines the evolution of homosexuality laws in the UK, illustrating how legal perspectives and societal attitudes have changed over time. It traces the legal status of homosexual acts from being punishable by death to the decriminalization and the eventual recognition of same-sex relationships and marriage. Buggery Act (1533): - Made anal sex an offense punishable by hanging, marking the start of explicit legal prohibition of homosexual acts. - Later repealed and re-enacted, highlighting the fluctuating legal stance. Offences Against the Persons Act (1861): - Removed the death penalty for homosexual acts, though they remained illegal, with imprisonment as the punishment. Labouchere Amendment (1885): - Extended the definition of illegal homosexual acts to include any form of sexual activity. Oscar Wilde's Conviction: - Illustrates the enforcement of these laws through the prosecution of prominent figures. - Highlights the social stigma and legal consequences faced by homosexuals. Enforcement in the 1950s: - Active enforcement and imprisonments, with high-profile cases such as Alan Turing. - Underscores the social climate and legal persecution of homosexuals during this period. Alan Turing: - A key figure who was prosecuted for gross indecency, which led to his chemical castration and suicide. Wolfenden Report (1957): - Recommended decriminalization of homosexual acts between consenting adults in private. Sexual Offences Act (1967): - Partially decriminalized homosexual acts under specific conditions: - Acts had to be consensual, take place in private, and involve individuals over the age of 21. Age of Consent Changes (1994, 1997, 2001): - The age of consent for homosexual acts was initially set at 18, and the European Court of Human Rights later intervened. - The age of consent was lowered to 16, aligning with heterosexual acts. Sexual Offences Act (2004): - Introduced gender-neutral sexual offenses, eliminating previous distinctions based on the sex or gender of participants. Civil Partnership Act (2005): - Introduced legal recognition of same-sex relationships. Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act (2013): - Legalized same-sex marriage in England and Wales, which came into effect in 2014. Policing and Crime Act (2017): - Posthumously pardoned thousands of gay men convicted under historical sodomy laws. Department of Education Guidelines (2019): - Mandated the inclusion of LGBT rights, including same-sex marriage, in Relationships and Sex Education (RSE) in schools.

Marxism Overview: Marxism is a socio-economic and political ideology that analyzes society through the lens of class conflict and critiques capitalism. It examines how the economic system shapes social structures and individual behaviors. Capitalism: - Marxism views capitalism as a system that encourages consumption to make profit. - It can lead to corporate crime, where the pursuit of profit can come at the cost of human lives. - The Ford Pinto case exemplifies how the quest for profit within capitalism can lead to criminal behavior. Class Conflict: - Marxism sees criminality as a product of capitalism, rooted in class conflict. - The text implies a "Dog Eat Dog mentality" bred by capitalism, which promotes selfishness. Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat: - The text mentions the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat (the working class) as key opposing forces within capitalist society. - The proletariat often experiences the negative consequences of capitalist practices. Eysenck's Personality Theory Overview: Eysenck's personality theory proposes that personality traits, particularly extroversion and neuroticism, can predict criminal behavior. This theory suggests that certain personality types are more prone to committing crimes. Extroversion: - Extroverts are sociable, optimistic, and excitement-seeking, which can lead to risk-taking behaviors. - Extroverted individuals might be impulsive and less likely to consider the consequences of their actions. Neuroticism: - Neurotic individuals tend to have high anxiety levels. - High neuroticism can make it harder to learn from mistakes or be conditioned through punishment. Recidivism: - Eysenck's theory can be used to explain repeat offenders, such as Simon. - The combination of extroverted and neurotic traits may make individuals more likely to engage in criminal behavior and reoffend. Labeling Theory Overview: Labeling theory examines how societal reactions and labels influence individual behavior, especially in the context of deviance and crime. It posits that being labeled as a deviant can lead to further deviance through processes like master status and self-fulfilling prophecy. Master Status: The context describes how teachers label Eddie, which then becomes his master status. This implies that the label of "thick" or "troublemaker" becomes the primary way he is viewed and treated, overshadowing other aspects of his identity. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The theory suggests that when individuals internalize labels, it influences their actions. In Eddie's case, accepting the school's view of him ("thick") creates a self-fulfilling prophecy, potentially leading to behaviors that confirm that label. Deviant Subculture: Eddie joins a deviant subculture, which reacts to societal norms through deviance. This concept explains how individuals, after being labeled, may find acceptance and validation within groups that share similar experiences of being labeled as outsiders, further reinforcing their deviant behavior. Attachment Theory Overview: Attachment Theory, primarily developed by John Bowlby, explores the impact of early childhood relationships and experiences on an individual's emotional and psychological development, particularly focusing on the significance of a secure and stable attachment with a primary caregiver. Maternal Deprivation: - Key concept within Attachment Theory, it highlights the negative effects of separation from a mother or primary caregiver during early childhood. - Consequences can include emotional and psychological difficulties, potentially leading to issues such as affectionless psychopathy - The case studies illustrate how separation and absent parents can lead to a failure to form successful attachments. Affectionless Psychopathy: - Defined by an inability to experience empathy or remorse. - It's linked to maternal deprivation and unstable early attachments. - Individuals with this condition may exhibit criminal behavior and struggle to form meaningful relationships. - The case studies presented show how these early attachment failures can be linked to later criminal behavior. Social Learning Theory Overview: Social Learning Theory, proposed by Bandura, suggests that individuals learn behaviors by observing and imitating others, especially when those behaviors are positively reinforced. This theory emphasizes the role of models and the influence of social context on learning. Imitation: - Individuals learn by observing and mimicking the behaviors of others. - The likelihood of imitation is influenced by factors such as the perceived rewards and consequences experienced by the model. Models: - Models are individuals whose behaviors are observed and potentially imitated. - Models can be people admired or respected by the observer. - The characteristics of models (e.g., status, competence) influence the extent of imitation. Positive Reinforcement: - If a model's behavior is positively reinforced (rewarded), observers are more likely to imitate that behavior. - Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the observed behavior will be repeated by the observer. Criminality Theories Overview: Criminality theories are used to analyze and understand criminal behavior by applying different theoretical perspectives to various case studies and scenarios. The theories can be used to identify the crime or crimes and criminal behavior within the scenarios and understand the possible causes. Biological Theories: - Focus: Examine the biological factors contributing to criminal behavior. - Sub-Categories: Physiological, Genetic, Brain Injuries, Disorders, and Biochemical. - Key Figures/Theories: Lombroso's Theory, Sheldon's Theory, XYY, Twin and adoption studies. Individualistic Theories: - Focus: Explore individual psychological processes and personality traits related to criminality. - Sub-Categories: Psychodynamic, Psychological, and Learning Theories. - Key Figures/Theories: Freud, Bolby (Psychodynamic), Eysenck, Bandura (Learning Theory). Sociological Theories: - Focus: Investigate how societal structures and interactions influence criminal behavior. - Key Figures/Theories: Durkheim and Merton (Functionalism), Marxism, Interactionism (Labeling theory), Left and Right Realism. Exam Style Examples Overview: This section focuses on applying criminal theories to real-life and exam-style scenarios to analyze criminality. The approach involves understanding various crimes and behaviors and linking them to relevant theories. Eddie's Case: The context does not provide a case study or any information about Eddie, so no information can be derived. Darren's Case: - Possible link to frontal lobe damage due to an injury, and its connection to violence and short temper. Simon's Case: - Simon is an opportunist thief. - The case could be analyzed using various criminal theories. Sharon's Case: - Sharon's background involves chaotic home life, neglect, and parental involvement in criminal activities and substance abuse. - She experienced emotional withdrawal and was placed in foster care. Strain Theory Overview: Strain theory, primarily associated with Robert Merton, posits that societal structures and cultural goals can create strain, leading individuals to resort to illegitimate means to achieve success. This theory explains deviance as a result of the disconnect between culturally prescribed goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. Innovation: - Individuals accept societal goals (e.g., wealth) but reject legitimate means to achieve them. - Example: Shoplifting to obtain desired goods when legitimate opportunities are limited. Illegitimate Means: - The use of criminal or deviant behavior to achieve societal goals. - Arises when legitimate opportunities are blocked, creating a strain. - Example: Employing shoplifting as a way to obtain desired goods. Relative Deprivation: - A sense of lacking compared to others, leading to feelings of discontent and potential deviance. - Can drive individuals to crime when they perceive a gap between their aspirations and their actual circumstances. - Example: Darren's shoplifting is linked to his perception of not having access to branded clothing and footwear, as advertised, due to his limited financial resources. Right Realism Overview: Right Realism views crime as a rational choice made by individuals who weigh the risks and rewards of offending. It emphasizes the role of opportunity and the lack of effective social controls in causing crime. Rational Choice Theory: Offenders assess risks versus rewards before committing crimes. Criminals are rational actors seeking to maximize their gains. Crime occurs when the perceived benefits outweigh the potential costs (e.g., getting caught). Opportunist Criminals: Criminals are often opportunistic, seeking out immediate gains. They look for opportunities to commit crimes when targets are vulnerable. This includes instances when security is low or when the potential for easy escape is high. Risk vs Reward: Right Realism focuses on the balance between the risks and rewards of committing a crime. The absence of capable guardians (e.g., security guards) increases the likelihood of crime. The theory suggests that increasing the risks (e.g., surveillance, harsher penalties) can deter crime. Analyzing Criminality Overview: Analyzing Criminality involves applying various theories of criminality to real-world scenarios, case studies, and exam-style situations. This includes identifying crimes, understanding criminal behavior, and explaining the possible causes through the lens of criminological theories. Applying Criminality Theories: Apply theoretical knowledge from previous modules. Link theories to specific cases or scenarios. Explain how a theory applies to a given situation. Case Studies: Analyze real-life cases. Apply criminological theories to understand the cases. Examples: Darren's case (frontal lobe damage), Simon's case (opportunistic thief). Exam Scenarios: Practice with exam-type scenarios. Unpack stimulus materials provided in exams. Identify the crime and criminal behavior within the scenarios. Crime Identification: Recognize a wide range of crimes (crimes against property, white-collar crimes, etc.). Identify the specific crime or crimes in a given scenario. Criminal Behavior Analysis: Analyze criminal behavior patterns. Understand possible causes of criminal behavior by applying theories. Examples: Darren's short-temper linked to frontal lobe damage, Simon's impulsive behavior and risk-taking.

Summary outlines for AC 4.1 Assess the use of Biological theories in informing policy development (Updated 2022) Individualized Treatment Programs Overview: Individualized Treatment Programs are policies influenced by biological theories, advocating for treatments to address physical or biochemical abnormalities believed to cause criminality. These programs aim to reduce offending through various interventions. Drug Treatments: - Alcohol abuse can be addressed with Antabuse, an aversion therapy drug that induces hangover symptoms upon alcohol consumption, potentially reducing alcohol-related crimes. - Methadone is used as a long-term alternative to heroin, functioning as a legally controlled medical substitute to reduce drug-related crime. Alcohol Abuse: - Antabuse is an example of drug treatments, which can reduce alcohol related crimes. Aversion Therapy: - Aversion therapy with Antabuse. Heroin Addiction: - Methadone as a long-term alternative. Sex Offenders: - Chemical castration using Stilbestarol (a female hormone) to suppress testosterone and reduce sexual urges. - Side effects include breast development, feminization, and potential psychiatric disorders. Chemical Castration: - Stilbestarol and surgical castration. Sedatives and Tranquilizers: - Drugs like Valium, Librium, and Largatil are used to calm violent or troublesome prisoners. Dietary Changes: - Supplementing prisoner diets with vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids to reduce antisocial behavior. - Dietary changes may be linked to the removal of artificial coloring from children's diets to reduce hyperactivity and crime. Vitamin Supplements: - Supplementing prisoners' diets with vitamins. Surgery: - Lobotomies have been used to alter offenders' brains, though rarely performed now. - Surgical castration has been used, with mixed results. Lobotomies: - Lobotomies were used to alter offenders' brains and bodies. Crowd Control: - Tear gas is a biological method to control crowds and disperse rioters. **Tear Gas :** - Tear gas is a biological method used for crowd control. Biological Theories Overview: Biological theories propose that criminality stems from physical or biochemical abnormalities within an individual, influencing policies that aim to address these internal factors to reduce offending. Brain Injuries: Brain injuries and disorders can be linked to criminality and lead to policies and treatments. Lobotomies have been used, although rarely today, to alter offenders' brains and bodies. Biochemical Theories: Biochemical factors linked to criminality have led to individualized treatment programs for offenders. Examples include using vitamin B3 for some forms of schizophrenia and dietary changes to control hyperactivity, such as removing artificial coloring from children's diets. Physical Abnormality: Biological theories suggest that criminality is caused by physical abnormalities. Policies based on this include eugenics, which led to compulsory sterilization and forced abortions, and chemical methods like tear gas and chemical castration to control or alter behavior. Individualized Treatment: Policies focus on addressing biological causes of crime, such as drug or alcohol addiction treatment, sedatives and tranquilizers to calm prisoners, and surgical interventions like chemical castration. Eugenics Overview: Eugenics, a policy influenced by early 20th-century biological theories, aimed to "improve" the human race by controlling reproduction based on perceived genetic traits. This led to discriminatory practices and policies. Genetic Theories: - The idea that traits, including those linked to criminality, are transmitted through genes influenced eugenics. - Early theories posited that certain groups were genetically inferior. Compulsory Sterilization: - Policies were implemented to sterilize individuals deemed "genetically unfit." - This included those with mental illnesses, learning difficulties, and criminals. - The American Supreme Court ruled in 1927 that compulsory sterilization was legal. Forced Abortions: - Eugenic policies also included forced abortions to prevent the birth of "undesirable" offspring. Restrictions on Marriage: - Restrictions on marriage were imposed to prevent the "unfit" from reproducing. Nazi Germany: - The Nazis embraced eugenics, using it to justify racial purity. - They targeted the physically and mentally disabled for sterilization and euthanasia. - Eugenic policies were used to justify the elimination of "inferior races," including Jews and Roma people. Racial Purity: - The Nazi's extreme eugenic policies aimed to purify the Aryan race. - This resulted in the persecution and murder of millions of people deemed racially inferior or deviant. 

Psychoanalysis Overview: Psychoanalysis, rooted in Sigmund Freud's theories, is an individualistic approach that explores unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions to understand and treat criminal behavior. It emphasizes the role of a weak superego and inadequate socialization in the development of criminality. Freud's Theory: - Freud's theory posits that unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions influence behavior. - He believed that early childhood experiences and inadequate socialization contribute to a weak superego. - This lack of moral force can lead to selfish instincts and criminal behavior. Weak Superego: - A weak superego results from inadequate socialization during childhood. - Individuals with a weak superego may lack the moral constraints to curb selfish instincts, potentially leading to criminal behavior. Treatment of Criminality: - Psychoanalysis has been used as a treatment for criminality, although it is not widely used today. - It involves bringing unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness for resolution. - The approach is often lengthy, with patients meeting multiple times per week for years. Socialization: - Freud believed that inadequate socialization during childhood can lead to a weak superego. - Policies influenced by psychoanalysis, such as those by August Aichhorn, focused on providing supportive environments to promote healthy socialization and superego development in young offenders. Therapeutic Techniques: - Psychoanalytic techniques include hypnosis and word association to uncover unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions. Attachment Disorder Overview: Attachment disorder stems from early childhood trauma, hindering the formation of normal relationships. It's a significant focus in education, influencing teacher training and policies. Bowlby's Theory: Bowlby's work directly links to attachment disorder, emphasizing the impact of early life experiences on attachment formation. Maternal deprivation is a key concept. Education Policies: Strategies for dealing with attachment disorder are integrated into teacher training programs. Schools and local authorities are judged on the performance of looked after children (LAC) - those who are fostered or adopted. Support for Looked After Children: Increased funding for schools is allocated to support looked after children who are statistically more likely to have experienced maternal deprivation. Designated teachers for LAC are a common practice. Teacher Training: Teacher training programs now include education on attachment disorder and strategies to improve it. Funding for Schools: Funding for schools has increased to provide support for looked after children (LAC). Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Overview: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a therapeutic approach used to change the way offenders think and behave. It aims to modify attitudes and behaviors through various programs, such as Think First and Aggression Replacement Training (ART), focusing on skills development and moral reasoning. Offender Treatment Programs: CBT programs are designed to change offenders' thinking and attitudes to modify their behavior. These programs are often used by probation services. Think First Program: A CBT program for repeat offenders on probation. Involves group and one-to-one sessions. Aims to help offenders control their thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Teaches problem-solving skills, consequential thinking, decision-making, and empathy. Provides social interaction and moral reasoning training. Has shown a reasonable success rate with a 30% reduction in reconviction rates compared to alternative community service. However, non-completion rates can be high. Aggression Replacement Training (ART): Another CBT program for violent or aggressive offenders. Involves training in interpersonal skills, anger control techniques, and alternative courses of action. Includes moral reasoning training to challenge offenders' attitudes. Evaluations often show lower reconviction rates for those who attend ART. Some evaluations have found that while thinking skills improve, aggression can persist. Moral Reasoning: Moral reasoning training is a component of both the Think First and ART programs. It involves challenging offenders' attitudes and considering moral dilemmas. Recidivism Rates: CBT programs like Think First and ART aim to reduce recidivism rates. Think First has demonstrated a reduction in reconviction rates. ART has also shown lower reconviction rates in some evaluations. Aversion Therapy Overview: Aversion therapy is a psychological treatment that aims to reduce unwanted behaviors by associating them with unpleasant stimuli, such as electric shocks or nausea-inducing drugs. It has been used for treating conditions like sex offending and alcoholism, but also raises ethical concerns and has been subject to abuse. Sex Offender Treatment: - Involves asking offenders to think about unacceptable sexual fantasies. - Aversive stimuli (electric shocks or nausea-inducing drugs) are administered during arousal. - The goal is to associate the deviant behavior with the aversive stimulus. - This is repeated until the offender associates the deviant arousal and behavior with the stimulus, with the aim of stopping the thoughts and therefore the offending behavior. Alcoholism Treatment: - Uses a nausea-producing drug for conditioning. - The drug is added to alcohol. - The individual associates alcohol with nausea. - The aim is to stop alcohol consumption. Ethical Issues: - The use of aversion therapy raises significant ethical concerns due to the use of aversive stimuli and potential for abuse. Human Rights Concerns: - Aversion therapy has been used to try to "cure" homosexuality, constituting a clear human rights abuse. Conditioning Techniques: - Aversion therapy employs classical conditioning techniques. - It involves pairing unwanted behaviors or thoughts with aversive stimuli to create a negative association, with the goal of reducing the frequency of the unwanted behavior. Token Economies Overview: Token economies are a form of behavior modification used in closed institutions, such as prisons, designed to encourage desirable behavior through a system of rewards and reinforcement. They are influenced by individualistic theories and have been implemented in various settings, including the US prison system. Behavior Modification: - Token economies are designed to obtain desirable behavior. Used in closed institutions such as prisons and young offenders units. Based on the principles of reinforcement to shape behavior. Hobbs and Holt Study: - Conducted in Alabama, USA with delinquent boys (ages 12-15) in a state training school. Aimed to discover the effects of a token economy program on criminal behavior. Involved 125 delinquent males residing in five independent cottage units. Reinforcement: - Token economies use rewards to encourage positive behavior. In prison systems, this includes earning privileges (incentives and earned privileges system - IEPs). Examples of rewards may include more spending money. Prison Systems: - The US and other countries use token economies in prison systems. Prisoners can earn rewards for following rules (Incentives and earned privileges system (IEPs)). There are different levels within the system, such as basic, standard, and enhanced. Token economies can improve behavior in prison. Some criticisms involve withholding food or drink as rewards, which raises human rights concerns. Recidivism: - Token economies may not always transfer to the home environment after release from prison. The positive effects of the system may disappear after leaving the prison. Offenders who participate in token economy programs tend to return to crime more slowly. Token economies do not cure criminality. There is a chance of recidivism. Token economies do not work for everyone (10-20% of people).

Labeling Theory Overview: Labeling Theory examines how societal reactions and labels influence an individual's behavior, potentially leading to deviance and criminality. It suggests that being labeled as a criminal can result in negative consequences, such as limited opportunities and further criminal behavior. Decriminalization: - Decriminalization of offenses, like cannabis possession, reduces the number of people labeled as criminals. - Fewer arrests for such offenses limit the application of criminal labels. Diversion Policies - Policies that aim to keep offenders out of the justice system to prevent them from being labeled as criminals. - Examples include informal diversion by police discretion or formal measures like anger management courses. Reintegrative Shaming: - Focuses on labeling the act, not the actor, to avoid stigmatizing the offender. - Encourages remorse and reintegration into society. - Contrasts with practices that label the person as a "thief." Criminal Records and Opportunities: - A criminal record can restrict employment and other opportunities. - Lack of opportunities can lead to secondary deviance and further criminal behavior. Merton's Strain Theory Overview: Merton's Strain Theory suggests that societal inequalities and the gap between aspirations and opportunities can lead to crime. This theory influences policies aimed at reducing crime by addressing societal structures and providing equal opportunities. Crime Reduction Policies: Policies should tackle inequality and poverty. Focus on better welfare benefits, wages, and job security. These policies aim to provide everyone with an equal chance of achieving success legally. Minimum wage increases are viewed as positive policies. Welfare Benefits: Merton's Strain Theory supports policies that address poverty. Welfare benefits help reduce crime by giving everyone a more equal chance of achieving success legally. Equal Opportunities in School: Treating working-class pupils equally reduces failure rates. This approach makes them less likely to experience status frustration and join delinquent subcultures. Policies influenced by sociological theories aim to provide equal educational opportunities. Marxism Overview: Marxism, rooted in sociological theory, advocates for policies addressing societal inequalities and supporting the working class, influencing approaches to crime, economics, and social structures. Addressing the Divide Between Rich and Poor: - Marxism supports policies that address the divide between the rich and the poor. - Policies such as welfare, fair wages, job security, and education are influenced by sociological theory and Marxist ideology. Discrimination and Inequality: - Marxism supports structural changes that tackle discrimination, inequality of opportunity, and unfair rewards within society. - These changes are seen as essential for creating a more equitable society. Good Jobs and Housing: - Marxism supports the provision of good jobs and housing for all. - These are viewed as fundamental rights and are essential components of a just society. Private Prisons and Probation Companies: - Marxism does not support private prisons or probation companies. - It favors state ownership of businesses, particularly in sectors related to criminal justice, to prevent exploitation and ensure public benefit. Left Realism Overview: Left Realism is a criminological perspective that focuses on the realities of crime and its impact, particularly on marginalized communities. It advocates for practical, community-based solutions to reduce crime and improve social justice. Reducing Inequality: - Left Realists argue that inequality is a root cause of crime. - Policies should address discrimination, inequality of opportunity, and unfairness in areas like jobs and housing. - Calls for major structural changes to tackle these issues. Democratic Policing: - The police are losing public support, especially in poorer areas, which hinders crime solving. - To regain support, the police need to foster trust with the public. - This involves building better relationships and improving information flow. Multi-Agency Approach: - Crime prevention requires collaboration among various agencies. - Agencies include the police, schools, youth services, housing departments, social services, probation services, NHS, and local councils. - The aim is to provide young people with alternatives to crime. Neighborhood Policing: - The provided text does not contain information about this topic, but it is a relevant topic to the concept of left realism. Focus on Victimization: - The provided text does not contain information about this topic, but it is a relevant topic to the concept of left realism. Right Realism Overview: Right Realism is a perspective in criminology that emphasizes the importance of individual responsibility, punishment, and crime prevention through situational and environmental strategies. It focuses on rational choice theory, arguing that criminals make calculated decisions to offend, and therefore, crime can be reduced by increasing the costs of committing it. Situational Crime Prevention: - Focuses on reducing opportunities for crime by increasing the risks or difficulties of committing it - Examples include target hardening measures like locking cars, employing security guards, and reshaping the environment to deter crime. - Based on the rational choice theory, which suggests offenders weigh the risks and rewards of a crime. - Does not tackle structural causes of crime. Environmental Crime Prevention: - Linked to right realism - Focuses on the idea that a disordered neighborhood sends a message that nobody cares, which attracts offenders and increases serious crime. Broken Windows Theory: - A key component of Environmental Crime Prevention. - Proposes that visible signs of disorder, like broken windows, signal a lack of social control and encourage further crime. - Advocates for mending broken windows and addressing minor offenses to prevent more serious crimes. Zero Tolerance Policing: - A policy that is linked to right realism - Doesn't tackle the structural causes of crime. Penal Populism: - Right realists advocate for tougher penalties to deter criminals based on the idea that criminals make a rational choice to offend by weighing up the costs and benefits. - Led to an increase in prison numbers in the 1990s. Sociological Theories and Policy Development Overview: Sociological theories significantly influence policy development by informing approaches to societal issues like inequality, crime, and education. These theories provide frameworks for understanding social structures and behaviors, shaping policies aimed at creating a more equitable and just society. Tackling Inequality: Policies addressing inequality, such as welfare, fair wages, and job security, are influenced by sociological theories. Merton's strain theory suggests that reducing inequality can decrease crime rates. Examples: Minimum wage increases, equal opportunities in schools to reduce failure and status frustration. Crime Control and Reduction: Policies informed by sociological theories aim to reduce crime through various measures. Merton's strain theory supports policies that address poverty and provide opportunities for success. Left realists view unequal social structures as a root cause of crime. Education in Prison: Policies that focus on education in prisons are influenced by sociological theory. Improving education helps inmates gain skills, find jobs, and reduce recidivism. Addressing low literacy rates (e.g., half of UK prisoners with a reading age of 11) through education is crucial. Structural Changes in Society: Marxism supports structural changes that tackle discrimination, inequality of opportunity, and unfairness. These changes involve providing good jobs, housing, and addressing societal imbalances. Left realists also advocate for major structural changes to reduce inequality and discrimination.

Drink Driving Laws Overview: Drink driving laws have evolved significantly due to changing public attitudes and increased road safety awareness. The legal framework has progressively tightened, with key developments including the establishment of blood alcohol limits, introduction of breathalyzers, and implementation of stricter penalties and campaigns to influence public opinion. Public Attitudes: Public perception of drink driving has shifted, with a marked increase in the view that it is unacceptable behavior. Road safety campaigns have played a crucial role in changing these perceptions, leading to a decline in drink driving incidents. 1925 Law: The first law against drink driving was passed in 1925, marking the initial legal prohibition of driving while intoxicated. Blood Alcohol Limit: The 1967 Road Safety Act introduced the first legal blood alcohol limit, setting the threshold at 80 milligrams of alcohol per 100 milligrams of blood. Breathalyzers: Breathalyzers were introduced in the 1960s, improving the detection of alcohol levels in drivers and aiding in law enforcement efforts. High Risk Offender Scheme: Introduced in 1983, this scheme required drivers with alcohol problems or multiple drink driving convictions to undergo a medical examination before regaining their license. Penalties: Penalties for drink driving have become increasingly severe over time, including mandatory prison sentences for causing death while driving under the influence, with sentences increasing from 5 years in 1991 to 14 years in 2014. Advertising Campaigns: Early advertising campaigns, starting over 50 years ago, targeted high-risk groups like young males. These campaigns have been instrumental in changing public attitudes and reducing drink driving incidents. Social Changes and Policy Development Overview: This presentation explores how societal shifts, specifically in culture, public perception, and demographics, influence the development of policies and laws. The presentation focuses on how changes in society have led to changes in policies and laws, covering cultural changes, public perception of crime, and demographic changes. Cultural Changes: Focuses on changes in societal norms, values, and attitudes. Discusses the decline in prejudice towards ethnic minorities. Mentions the impact of cultural changes on the public perception of discrimination and race-related crimes, making such offenses more likely to be criminalized. Public Perception of Crime: Considers how the public's views on what constitutes a crime evolve. Links changes in public perception to changes in laws and policies. Provides an understanding of how societal changes influence the development of crime-related policies. Demographic Changes: Highlights the impact of population shifts on policy development. Explores how changes in demographics influence the types of laws and policies needed. Considers how demographic shifts can affect both cultural norms and the public's perception of crime. Race Relations Laws Overview: Race relations laws in the UK aim to combat racial discrimination and promote equality. These laws have evolved over time, addressing various forms of discrimination in public spaces, employment, housing, and public services, alongside broader societal and cultural changes. Race Relations Act: - The Race Relations Act of 1965 was a crucial piece of legislation. It banned racial discrimination in public spaces, aiming to address the widespread prejudice of the time. - The 1968 Act outlawed discrimination in employment, housing, and public services, expanding the scope of legal protection. - The 1976 Act strengthened the law by covering both direct and indirect discrimination. Equality Act: - The Equality Act 2010 consolidated previous legislation. - It brought together laws on racial, sex, age, and disability discrimination. Discrimination: - Direct Discrimination: Occurs when someone is treated less favorably because of their race, color, or ethnicity. - Indirect Discrimination: Arises when a policy or rule, though seemingly neutral, disproportionately disadvantages certain groups. Public Perception of Discrimination: - The public perception of discrimination and race hate crimes has changed over time. - There is a greater acceptance of these offenses being criminalized. - Surveys show a decline in racial prejudice, with a majority of ethnic minorities indicating that prejudice is lower now than in the past. Cultural Changes: - Cultural changes, including increased interaction between people of different backgrounds, have contributed to a decline in prejudice. - The increased mixing of children from different backgrounds in schools and workplaces is seen as a significant factor in improving race relations. Demographic Changes: - Increased immigration and a more diverse population have led to a more integrated society. Immigration and Racism: - Slum housing for immigrants and low-paid jobs due to racial discrimination were prevalent Smoking Laws Overview: Smoking laws have evolved over time, reflecting changing attitudes towards tobacco use and its health impacts. These laws aim to reduce smoking prevalence through advertising restrictions, public health measures, and regulations focused on protecting vulnerable populations, such as children. Historical Context: - Smoking was once widely accepted and even encouraged, with cigarettes being glamorized and promoted in advertising. - In the 1930s, smoking was considered the norm, and doctors even endorsed it. Health Implications: - Research in the mid-1950s confirmed the link between tobacco products and lung cancer. - The Surgeon General's 1964 report linked cigarette smoking to lung cancer and chronic bronchitis. - Health warnings on cigarette packaging and in advertisements were introduced to inform the public about the health risks of smoking. Advertising: - Early advertising campaigns glamorized cigarettes. - The changing attitudes led to restrictive legislation on tobacco advertising and promotion. - Various advertising campaigns and advertisements over the years can be reviewed to analyze changes in perceptions. Tobacco Advertising Promotion Act: - The Tobacco Advertising Promotion Act of 2002 banned the advertising and promotion of tobacco products. - This included restrictions on the sponsorship of sporting events. Health Act: - The Health Act is not explicitly detailed in the provided context, but it can be assumed that it is related to laws that contributed to the declining rates of smokers. Children and Families Act: - The Children and Families Act of 2014 enabled regulations to prohibit smoking in vehicles when children are present. - It also prohibited the sale of nicotine to those under 18 and mandated plain packaging of tobacco products.

Newspaper Campaigns Overview: Newspaper campaigns leverage the influence of media outlets to raise awareness, advocate for change, and influence public opinion on specific issues or legislative reforms. These campaigns often involve collaborative efforts between individuals, organizations, and newspapers to promote their cause. Sarah's Law (Child Sex Offender Disclosure Scheme): Campaign Objective: To establish a system for the disclosure of information about child sex offenders to protect children. Key Players: Sarah's parents, the News of the World newspaper. - Actions: - Launch of a petition drive to demand public access and longer sentences for convicted sex offenders. - Publication of photographs and addresses of known sex offenders. - Outcomes: The campaign led to the Child Sex Offender Disclosure Scheme of 2011, also known as Sarah's Law. Year and a Day Rule Act: This can also be used as an example of a newspaper campaign. Campaigns and Policy Making Overview: Campaigns aim to influence policy and law changes, requiring an understanding of objectives, involved parties, methods, impact on views, and resulting policies. Analyzing campaigns involves examining their goals, key participants, strategies for change, influence on public opinion, and the specific laws or policies they introduce. Campaign Objectives: - Defining the campaign's goals and rationale. - Understanding why the campaign was started and its primary aims. Key Parties Involved: - Identifying the main protagonists in the campaign. - Recognizing the key individuals, groups, or organizations leading the campaign. Campaign Methods: - Exploring the strategies used to influence policies or laws. - Examining how the campaign sought to bring about change. Impact on Views: - Assessing how the campaign has changed or altered opinions. - Evaluating the campaign's influence on public perception and attitudes. Laws and Policies Introduced: - Identifying the specific laws or policies introduced as a result of the campaign. - Highlighting the real names of laws to cite them correctly. Child Sex Offender Disclosure Scheme Overview: The Child Sex Offender Disclosure Scheme, also known as Sarah's Law, aims to protect children by allowing parents to inquire about individuals who may pose a risk. This scheme enables police to disclose information about registered sex offenders to those best positioned to protect children, such as parents. Campaign Objectives: - To protect children - Life prison terms for child killers - Public access to identifying information on registered sex offenders Key Parties: - Sarah's Parents: Sarah and Michael. - The News of the World: A leading tabloid newspaper that supported the campaign. - Police: The authority that assesses risk and decides whether to disclose information Methods: - Petition Drive: To demand public access to information and longer sentences for sex offenders. - Publication of Information: The News of the World published photographs and addresses of 50 known sex offenders. Impact on Views: - The campaign received broad public support. - The publication of offenders' information ignited vigilante reprisals. Law Details: - The law came into effect in 2011. - Allows individuals to ask the police if someone in contact with a child has a record of child sexual offense. - Police are not obligated to disclose information but will do so if they judge a child is at risk. - In the first year, 700 pedophiles were identified under the scheme. - One in seven applications were successful. Pressure Group Campaigns Overview: Pressure groups launch campaigns to influence policy, aiming to change laws and raise awareness on specific issues. This can involve various strategies, from direct action to lobbying, with the goal of impacting public opinion and government decisions. Protection Against Stalking: Campaign Purpose: To introduce a new law specifically addressing stalking, as the existing anti-harassment law of 1997 didn't explicitly cover it. Context: The campaign was initiated due to the inadequacy of existing laws in protecting victims of stalking, with significant numbers of victims and cases leading to severe harm, including deaths. Key Parties Involved: The pressure group "Protection Against Stalking" A national charity working within communities to raise awareness about stalking, supporting victims, and providing resources. A national consortium of specialist stalking charities for collaboration and best practices. Methods Used: The pressure group aimed to change policies or laws by recognizing that the existing law was unfit for purpose and needed to be changed. Protection of Freedoms Act 2012: Outcome: Stalking was made a criminal offense. Impact: Significant increase in stalking charges, demonstrating the law's effect. Individual Campaigns Overview: Individual campaigns leverage personal stories and advocacy to address specific issues, often influencing policy and raising public awareness. Claire's Law and Michael Gibson's case serve as prime examples of this approach. Claire's Law (Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme): - Campaign's focus: Named after Claire Wood, who was murdered by her ex-boyfriend, this campaign sought to create a legal means for police to warn potential targets of abuse about their partners' violent past. - Key Supporters: Gained support from various groups, including women's groups, the media, the police, and the government. - Outcome: Led to the Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme in 2014, which was piloted in 2013. The scheme was rolled out across all 43 police forces in England and Wales in 2014 - Impact: The campaign raised awareness about domestic abuse and the police's role in addressing it. Michael Gibson's Case: - Context: This case served as an example of an individual campaign. - Purpose: The campaign aimed to create a legal means for police to warn potential targets of abuse of their partners' violent past - Support: Michael attended the House of Commons and gained support from MPs, the Association of Chiefs of Police Officers, the media, and women's groups. Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme Overview: The Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme (DVDS), also known as Claire's Law, allows the police to disclose information about an individual's history of domestic violence to their partner. This scheme aims to protect potential victims by providing them with information to make informed decisions about their safety. Campaign Objectives: - Raise the profile of domestic abuse issues. - Address the failures of the police to address domestic abuse. - Close legal loopholes related to domestic violence[3]. Key Parties: - The police - Potential victims - Other safeguarding agencies (probation service, prison, social services) Methods: - "Right to Ask": Allows individuals to apply to the police for information about their partner's violent past. - "Right to Know": Enables the police to disclose information to protect potential victims, even without a direct request. - Public awareness campaigns. - Collaboration with safeguarding agencies Impact on Views: - Increased awareness of domestic abuse - Widespread support from the police, government, media, and the public[3]. Law Details: - Pilot scheme introduced in 2013 in four police areas. - Rolled out across all 43 police forces in England and Wales in 2014[3]. - The police can disclose information about an individual's violent and abusive past to their partner[2]. - The police consult with safeguarding agencies to determine if disclosure is necessary to protect the person in question and decide who should receive the information[4]. - Safety plans are often set up for the potential victim[4]. Stalking Legislation Overview: This outlines the campaign by the pressure group "Protection Against Stalking" to introduce a specific law against stalking, addressing the limitations of the 1997 anti-harassment law and the need for more comprehensive protection. The campaign's success is seen in the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012, which made stalking a criminal offense. Campaign Objectives: The primary goal was to establish a new law that specifically criminalized stalking, due to the inadequacy of the existing anti-harassment law in addressing the issue effectively. This initiative aimed to provide better protection for victims and acknowledge the severity of stalking, which in some instances, had led to severe physical harm or death. Key Parties: - Protection Against Stalking, a national charity. - The charity raises awareness, supports victims, and offers resources. - National Consortium of specialist stalking Charities. - Police Federation - Magistrates Association Methods: - The campaign highlighted the existing law's inadequacy. - The campaign secured amendments to legislation. Impact on Views: - Increased awareness about stalking. - Acknowledged the need for a specific law to address stalking. Law Details: - The Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 made stalking a specific criminal offense. - The new law led to a significant increase in stalking charges, demonstrating its impact.

Assessment Criteria: 1.2 Past Questions:​ With reference to examples, analyse how laws change due to time, place and culture. 9 marks (2017)​ Discuss, using examples, how laws have changed over time. 7 marks (2019)​ Gaps and Possible Questions:​ Discuss, using examples, how laws change over place.​ Discuss, using examples, how laws change from culture to culture.​ How laws are applied differently according to circumstance in which actions occur. Assessment Criteria: 2.1 Past Questions:​ With reference to the text above, describe the main features of one physiological theory of criminality. 5 marks (2017)​ Describe one physiological theory of criminality. 5 marks (2018)​ Describe one biological theory of criminality. 5 marks (2019)​ Gaps and Possible Questions:​ Describe one physiological theory of criminality.​ Assessment Criteria: 2.2 Past Questions: Describe one individualistic theory of criminality. 5 marks (2017) With reference to Jimmy’s case, describe one individualistic theory of criminality. 5 marks (2018) Describe one individualistic theory of criminality. 5 marks (2019) Briefly describe one individualistic theory of criminality. 4 marks (2020) Past Questions: Describe the main features of one Learning Theory of criminality. Assessment Criteria: 3.1 Past Questions: Analyse how the theory described above (individualistic) can be applied to Paul’s situation. 5 marks (2017) Gaps and Possible Questions:​ Note: Questions will depend on scenario given but you can apply Physiological and Learning Theories to it. Marks can be awarded for other relevant links even if not on the Advanced Info for 2022. Assessment Criteria: 3.2 Past Questions: Evaluate the effectiveness of a range of individualistic criminological theories to explain causes of criminality. 8 marks (2017) Evaluate psychodynamic theory in explaining causes of criminality. 8 marks (2018) Evaluate the effectiveness of the theory described in (b) (i) (Individualistic theories) in explaining the causes of criminality. 6 marks (2019) Evaluate the effectiveness of individualistic theories in explaining the causes of criminality. 9 marks (2020) Gaps and Possible Questions:​ Evaluate social learning theories in explaining causes of criminality. Evaluate personality theory in explaining causes of criminality. Evaluate the effectiveness of individualistic theories in explaining the causes of criminality. Assessment Criteria: 4.1 Past Questions: Examine the crime control policy options that Mr Mackie could introduce if elected as mayor. 6 marks (2017) Describe the difference between formal and informal policy making. 2 marks (2018) Describe the crime control policy options that Alan might propose. 4 marks (2018) Assess one crime control policy developed from individualistic theories of criminality. 6 marks (2018) Gaps and Possible Questions:​ Outline one example of how individualistic theories of criminality have informed policy development. What is the difference between crime control policies and state punishment policies? Assessment Criteria: 4.2 Past Questions: Discuss how social changes can affect policy development. 8 marks (2017) Explain how social values, norms and mores may impact on policy development. 7 marks (2018) With reference to the scenario, explain how social changes affect policy development. 6 marks (2020) Gaps and Possible Questions:​ Discuss, using examples, how public perception of crime affects policy development. Discuss, using examples, how the structure of society affects policy development. Discuss, using examples, how demographic changes affect policy development. Discuss, using examples, how cultural changes affect policy development. Assessment Criteria: 4.3 Past Questions: With reference to campaigns and their methods, discuss how the residents’ campaign may affect policy development. 9 marks (2020) Gaps and Possible Questions:​ Discuss how the pressure group campaigns may affect policy development