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Stress
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- 1A number (3) of models of stress have been proposed to explain & describe what happens to an individual in a stress state…1) Physiological model
2) Arousal model
3) Transactional model - 21) Physiological model - “Stress” is the body’s automatic physiological response to an external stressor.Increased...- Heart rate & blood pressure; - Respiration rate;- Blood levels of sugar & fat; - Secretion of adrenaline & noradrenaline; - Secretion of stress hormones (e.g. cortisol); - Blood flow to skeletal muscles;Reduced...- Blood flow to skin, kidneys, intestines & stomach;
- 3- The “fight or flight” response(Cannon, 1929)
- 4- The “general adaptation syndrome”(Selye, 1936)
- 5General adaptation syndrome (Seyle, 1965)Hoping to discover a new sex hormone, Hans Seyleinjected rats with an ovarian hormone extract... - He found these injections had three main effects:(1) enlargement of the adrenal cortex
(2) shrinkage of the thymus gland (i.e. white blood cells) (3) Bleeding ulcers - However, when he injected rats with other fluids a similar physiological response was observed. - In fact, he found that all stressors (e.g. electric shock, trauma, restraint) led to a similar pattern of responses. - 6General adaptation syndrome (Seyle, 1965) The body’s response to stress was thought to have three distinct stages… 1?1) Alarm
- In response to a threat / stressor, the
sympathetic nervous system and
endocrine system are activated. - 72?2) Resistance - If the stressor / threat is not immediately dealt with or removed, the body will maintain its readiness to respond. - However, over time chronic stressors will begin to deplete the body’s resources
- 83?3) Exhaustion
- Eventually the body’s resources are
exhausted, and an adaptive response
to the stressor / threat becomes
increasingly difficult. - 9What is stress?“The non-specific response of
the body to any demand”
(Selye, 1950) - 10Critisms- No consideration given to the role to the
perception / appraisal of stressors
- Fails to account for individual
differences in stress - 112) Arousal model - An individual is “stressed” when they experience excessive levels of arousalThe Yerkes-Dodson law (1908) asserts that there is a relationship between arousal and performance… i.e. - Performance will improve with arousal, but after a certain point performance will decline. - For any task, there will be an optimal level of arousal at which an individual will perform his/ her best.
- 122) Arousal model graph
- 13The optimal level of arousal for any task will vary according to its complexity…Simple task
- High arousal = Optimal performance
Complex task
- Low arousal = Optimal performance
- High arousal = Sub-optimal performance - 14Critisms- Not specific to stress
- Perhaps too simplistic? - 153) Transactional model - An individual experiences “stress” when the perceived demands made on them exceed their perceived ability to deal with those demands.Stress is the result of a dynamic transaction between an individual & his / her environment. According to this model, the experience of ‘stress’ depends on an individual’s own perception/assessment of… (i) the demands made on them by a situation/event and (ii) their capacity to cope / deal with those demands
- 16In this context, an individual can be understood to experience “stress” when the perceived demands of a situation outweigh their perceived ability to cope.Demands < Ability to cope = no stress
Demands > Ability to cope = stress - 17“Stress responses are said to arise when demands exceed the personal and social resources that an individual is able to mobilise”(Steptoe, 1997)
- 18Stress and physical illnessResearch suggests that stress can affect the ability of the immune system to protect the body against ‘foreign bodies’ (e.g. bacteria, viruses, cancer)
- 19(Scheifer et al, 1979)- Men’s immune systems was significantly reduced during the
month after their wife had died. - 20(Jemmott et al, 1985)- The antibody levels of dental students were found to fall in
high-stress situations (e.g. taking an exam). - 21Cohen, Tyrrell & Smith (1991) - Does stress affect your vulnerability to the common cold?- Healthy volunteers were given nasal spray containing different cold viruses (or a saline solution). - Beforehand all participants asked to complete different
measures of stress. Participants with high levels of stress were later
found more likely to exhibit signs of infection and to develop cold symptoms than those with lower stress levels. - 22(Courtney et al, 1993)Swedish workers with a history of workplace stress were at greater risk (x 5.5 times more likely) of developing colon cancer than those who reported no such problems.
- 23Metcalfe et al (2007)- A prospective cohort study followed 6000+ Scottish men & women over a 30 year period (i.e. routine medical assessments & measures of psychological stress). - Higher incidences of (prostrate & breast) cancer were found amongst those who reported
moderate & high stress, when compared to those reporting low stress. - 24By weakening the body’s immune response, stress is also thought to facilitate thegrowth & proliferation of malignant cells.
- 25If stress suppresses the body’s immune response, it might be expected to exacerbatethe progression from HIV infection to AIDS…
- 26(e.g. Leserman et al, 1999)- HIV infected men who experience stressful life events
(e.g. loss of partner), exhibit greater immune suppression
& faster disease progression. - 27(Antoni et al, 1991)- Five weeks before notification of their HIV status, asymptomatic, health gay men were randomly assigned to either: (1) CBT stress management program; or (2) control group (i.e. assessment only).
- CBT group showed significantly elevated immune response compared to controls. - 28Gastric ulcersAlthough stress does not cause gastric ulcers, it may make them worse. Stomach ulcers are often caused by a bacterial infection, and a suppressed
immune response is likely to worsen its effects… - 29(e.g. Brodie & Hanson, 1960)Rats placed in stress-inducing restraints found to develop
gastric more readily than unstressed controls. - 30(e.g. Alp, Court & Grant, 1985)- When compared to healthy controls, individuals with chronic gastric ulcers found to
have experienced greater domestic & financial stress. - 31When stressed, there is a sudden increase in blood sugar levels.Over prolonged periods,
chronic stress can lead to weight gain & even diabetes… - 32Lloyd et al (1999) Investigated the relationship between stress life events & changes in glycaemic control in adults with diabetes.- It was found that recent severe personal stressors (e.g. death of spouse) were significantly associated with poor / impaired ability to regulate blood sugar levels. - Stressful life events assessed using semi-structure interviews
(i.e. “Life events & Difficulties Schedule”).
- Measures of glycaemic control taken from medical records. - 33Stress leads to increased heart rate & blood pressure, elevated cholesterol / triglyceride levels & blood clotting.Over time, chronic stress
can impact upon the cardiovascular system… - 34Rahe et al (1974)Interviewed heart attack survivors and the spouses of patients who had
died from abrupt coronary events.
- In both cases, patients were found to have had experienced significant
life changes in the months before their heart attack / death. - 35(Rosengren, Tibblin & Wilhelmsen, 1991)A prospective study measured the stress levels of 7,000 men (47-55 yrs) at baseline. - When followed-up 12 years later, men with the highest stress levels were found more likely to have suffered a heart attack or died from coronary artery disease.
- 36unhealthy behavioursStressed individuals are also more likely to
engage in unhealthy behaviours that are likely to further exacerbate the negative effects of stress… - 37Research has also found evidence that both acute & chronic stress can have a negative effects on our psychological functioning…- Burnout
- Depression
- Anxiety disorders
- Substance abuse
- PTSD
- Schizophrenia - 38(Perls & Silver, 1999)Of the 169 Centurions (100years olds) studied, all seemed to share the ability to manage stress well.
- 39Stress can be measured in three different ways:- Physiological measurements
- Questionnaires
- Interviews - 40The way in which you measure stress depends on two things…1) Your research question
2) Your conceptualisation
of ‘stress’ - 41Assumption: ‘Stress’ is simply a physiological response to external stressors.
- 42Autonomic nervous system During a stress response, the ‘sympathetic’ nervous system becomes more activeHeart rate & heart rate variability
- Electrocardiogram (ECG) - Pulse wave monitor Blood pressure - Auscultory & Oscillometric methods - Doppler technique - Finger arterial blood pressure Respiratory rate - Visual monitoring - Impedance pneumography
Electrodermal activity - Galvanic skin response - 43Endocrine systemDuring a stress response, the hypothalamus, pituitary
gland and adrenal glands become more active - 44Normally requires taking samples of blood, urine or salvia to analyse levels of…1) Cortisol
2) Salivary α-Amylase
3) Catecholamines (e.g. Adrenaline & noradrenaline) - 45Physiological measures Advantages- Objective
- Reliable
- Easily quantified
- Not reliant on self-report measures of stress - 46Physiological measures Disadvantages- Expensive equipment needed - Training for tests & interpret data - Tests artificial laboratory conditions - Timing issues (i.e. some physiological systems response quicker to stress than others) - Complex interaction of multiple factors (e.g. individual differences , weight & diet) - The use of invasive physiological tests source of stress- Reductionist (i.e. there’s a bit more to stress than physiology
- 47There are several different scales used to assess stress…- Life Experiences Survey
- Social Readjustment Rating Scale
- Daily Hassles and Uplifts Scale
- Assessment of Daily Experience
- Perceived Stress Scale - 48Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe, 1967)Major life events (both positive & negative) require individuals to adapt & readjust their lives, and as a result they are often
associated with stress… - 49Assumption: ‘Stress’ is a response to external stressors & significant life events (i.e. “stress as a stimulus”)i.e. The best way to assess your stress levels is to examine the number of
stressful events that have happened to you recently - 50Assumptions: 4?1. Change (both positive & negative) creates stress
2. Different life events result in different levels of stress
3. Different individuals will experience
similar levels of stress in response to
the same life events
4. Life events stress is cumulative - 51Holmes & Rahe (1967) - Development of the SRSS- 394 participants asked to rate a list of 43 life events (regardless of its
desirability) in terms of how much ‘readjustment’ it normally requires.
- Each event was calculated to have a different weighting, or Life Change Unit (LCU) score. - This measure of stress later became known as the “Social Readjustment Rating Scale” (SRRS), or
as the Holmes-Rahe Stress Scale. - 52Holmes & Rahe (1967) - Do stressful life events cause illness?Examined the medical records of 5,000 patients & asked them to indicate how many of the 43 life events had happened to them.
- A positive correlation (r = .12) was found between their life events and the severity of their illnesses. - 53Rahe, Mahan & Arthur (1970) - Do SRRS scores predict future health?2,500 sailors were asked to complete SRRS prior to a 6-8 month cruise…
- Detailed records of each sailor’s health
were then kept during their time at sea.
A positive correlation was found between their pre-cruise life events score and the number of reported illnesses throughout their time at sea. - 54Generally, people with Life Change Unit (LCU) scores higher than...-150 in a single year tend to have more
physical and psychological problems than individuals with lower LCU scores stressed people. e.g. Heart disease, diabetes, cancer, leukaemia, colds & fevers, accidents, athletic injuries, major depression and schizophrenia - 55Life Experiences Survey (LES) Sarason, Johnson & Siegel (1978)- In contrast to the SRRS, participants to indicate how positive or negative the impact of each event had on their lives.
- Overall scores, calculated as the sum of positive and negative ratings. - 56Assessment of Daily Experiences (ADE) Stone & Neale (1982)- Designed to address inadequacies of SRRS & LES (i.e. retrospective bias)
- Each day over a period of time (e.g. 2 weeks) participants asked to indicate which of 66 items happened that day.
- If event happened, participants asked to rate each event in terms of its desirability, meaningfulness, change & control. - 57Checklist approach- Individual differences (i.e. Life events do not necessarily affect all individuals in the same way - e.g. divorce)
- Retrospective bias (i.e. Recall of past events likely be subject to considerable bias & distortion)
- Impact of different life events vary
between cultures & over time
- Major life events are relatively
infrequent… - 58Daily hassles and uplifts scale(Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1981)
- 59AssumptionsMinor stressful events or the daily hassles of life are likely have a greater effect on health than the major life events measured by the SRRS.
- 60Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus (1981)- 100 adults asked to complete DHUS once a month for a 10 month period.
Three different scales created:
(1) the Hassles scale (117 items); (2) the Uplifts scale (135 items);
and (3) the Combined scale (53 items) - 61Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus (1981) - Do DHUS scores predict psychological health?Participants were also asked to complete a measure of major life events, as well as measures of wellbeing & psychological problems…
Scores on the hassles scale were found to be a better predictor of psychological symptoms than life events scores. - 62Perceived stress scale(Cohen, Kamarack & Mermelstein, 1983)
- 63Assumption:Our appraisal of situations is the most
important aspect, not the events themselves - 64Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein (1983) - Development of the PSSPerceived stress scale intended to measure the extent to which situations / events in your life are appraised to be stressful. Three different versions of the PSS have been created: (1) 14-item scale; (2) 10-item scale; (3) 4-items scale.i.e. Regardless of the life event, it is the perception / appraisal as “stressful” that is more important.
- 65Since its publication in 1983, the perceived stress scale (PSS), has become one of the most widely used psychological instruments to assess non-specific, perceived stress…PSS scores have been found to predict a variety of different objective, biological indicators of stress & an individual’s
risk of stress-related illnesses. e.g. High PSS scores associated with high cortisol levels, lower immune response, depression, increased susceptibility to infection, poor wound healing - 66Summary of all tests Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)- Checklist of events, stressfulness ratings are fixed
- 67Life Experiences Survey (LES)- Checklist of events, inquiry into the desirability of each event
- 68Assessment of Daily Experiences (ADE)- Monitor of thoughts & feelings about daily events
- 69Daily Hassles and Uplifts Scale (DHUS)- Measure of minor stresses and pleasures of everyday life
- 70Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)- Measure of an individual’s appraisal of stressful situations / events
- 71Measuring stress: Questionnaires advantages?- Cheap & easy to administer
- Large, representative participants
samples are straightforward to study
- Standardised participant testing - 72Measuring stress: Questionnaires Disadvantages- ‘Stressful life’ events frequently defined
& categorised by the researcher
- Social desirability bias
- Difficulties with retrospective data &
accurate recall of past events
- Weak correlations found with objective
indicators of stress - 73Measuring stress: Interviews To address the problems of questionnairebased measures, a number of interview schedules were developed…i.e.
- Trained interviewers follow a semi-structured schedule of questions.
- In-depth questioning allows researchers to better understand the impact of stressful life events in their full context. - 74Life events & difficulties schedule(Brown & Harris, 1978, 1979, 1989)
- 75Life events & difficulties scheduleSemi-structured interview schedule concerned with in-depth discussion of
200 potential stressors (e.g. death, illness, role change). - Intended to evaluate impact of life events in the context of each person’s unique circumstances. e.g. pregnancy - 76How does it work?- The interviewer & participant work together to establish a timeline of major life events experienced over a given period of time. - After the interview, the life events are later evaluated by independent raters (i.e. severity, short-term / long-term threat)
- 77Other interview schedules have also been developed…e.g.
- Structured Life Events Inventory
- Stressful Life Events and Difficulties Interview
- Paykel Brief Life Events List
- Kendler Life Stress Interview
- Hammen Life Stress Interview - 78Measuring stress: Interviews Advantages- Able to study the unique circumstances
of each individual - In-depth information about life events & their impact (i.e. acute or chronic stress?) - Flexible / responsive questioning - Relationship between stress & illness found to be stronger than self-report questionnaires - 79Measuring stress: Interviews Disadvantages- High costs of implementation
- Training is necessary to conduct
interviews appropriately
- Increased burden on researcher and
participant (i.e. time & effort)
- Rating & analysis of interview data is
often a lengthy process - 80individual differencesThe extent to which people experience stress may depend on the number & severity of stressors they are exposed to…
- 81Stressors There are four general types of stressor…- Catastrophic events
- Stressful life events
- Daily hassles
- Environmental stressors - 82The extent to which people experience stress may also depend on their...personality & how they
respond to the same stressful situations… - 83In the 1950’s, two cardiologists (Meyer Friedman & Ray Rosenman) were studying the risk factors for coronary heart disease...…they discovered that individuals who were most prone to CHD tended to behave in similar ways, and share certain personality traits.
- 84Friedman & Rosenman first recognised the possible link between a patient’s personality and their risk for heart disease when noting the state of their waiting room chairs…Both doctors noted that the waiting room furniture had been worn down
excessively and urgently needed reupholstering... - The upholster later pointed out that many of chairs had been worn out in an odd way(i.e. the front edges of cushions had been worn away quicker than the rest of the seat) - 85Based on their earlier research and clinical observations, Friedman & Rosenman identified a set of characteristics they believed were related to increased cholesterol levels… Type A personality- Ambitious
- Competitive
- Status conscious
- Impatient
- Self-critical
- Hostile
- Verbally aggressive - 86Type B personality- Calm
- Laid-back
- Easy going
- Non-competitive - 87Friedman & Rosenman (1959) - What behaviours are related to cholesterol & coronary heart disease? Managers & supervisors were asked to identify male employees that most closely fit with the descriptions of Type A & Type B behaviour.- Each employee was interviewed about their medical history, family history of CHD, work / sleep patterns, diet,
alcohol intake & smoking. - Interview also intended to check extent to which behaviour conformed to expected Type A or Type B patterns. - Asked to keep diary of alcohol intake & diet over the course of a week. - Blood sample taken (i.e. cholesterol & clotting) - 88Interviews confirmed that the behaviour of type A employees was markedly different to type B employees- Analysis of blood sample showed that Type A employees had significantly (i) faster blood clotting; and (ii) higher levels of fat & cholesterol - Type A employees also showed greater evidence of CHD (23%) than type B men (4%) Type A behaviour patterns might be a major risk factor in coronary heart disease.
- 89Friedman & Rosenman (1974) 3,200 men (aged 39 – 59) were interviewed & classified as exhibiting either type A or type B behaviour.- When followed-up nine years later, 257 men were found to have developed CHD.
- Of those 257, 70% were those previously identified to exhibit Type A behaviour. Individuals with Type A personality are more susceptible to stress, and more likely to suffer stress-related illnesses (e.g. CHD). - 90Type A personality - criticisms?- Too simplistic (i.e. It is unrealistic to expect that people simply fall into one of two categories) - Hostility (not Type A personality) thought to be most closely correlated to CHD - Difficult to replicate when using self-report measures of type A behaviour(see Miller et al, 1991)
- 91- These people have been described as having a “hardy personality”Not all ‘type A’ people are
prone the negative effects
of stress…
…In fact, some individuals
actually seem to thrive in
stressful situations. - 92What is hardiness?“A constellation of personality characteristics that function as a resistance resource in the encounter with stressful life events”
(Kobasa, Maddi & Kahn, 1982) - 93The “hardy personality” is thought to have three main dimensions:1) Commitment
2) Control
3) Challenge - 941) Commitmenti.e. Hardy individuals tend to have a sense of purpose and meaning to their lives, and are more actively involved in their work & social / family lives
- 952) Controli.e. Hardy individuals are more likely to see themselves in control of their lives, and believe that stressful situations can be managed.
- 963) Challengei.e. Hardy individuals are more inclined to regard change / new opportunities as a challenge to be met & addressed, rather than as a threat that is to be avoided.
- 97Kobasa (1979)600 American business executives asked about their stress levels (using the
SRRS) and incidence of illness over the previous three years. - 161 executives were found to have above-average stress levels. Analysis was concerned with two groups: 1) High stress & above-average illness (n = 75) 2) High stress & below-average illness (n = 86) - 98‘Hardy’ individuals seem to experience fewer stress-related illnesses…259 men (upper- and middle-managers; mean age = 48 years) were asked to
complete a battery of tests. ‘Hardy’ individuals seem to experience fewer stress-related illnesses… - When followed-up two years later, executives who were ‘psychologically hardy’ (e.g. perceiving stressful situations as a
challenge) were found to have suffered significantly less illness. - 99Optimism and pessimismAn individual’s attitudes and outlook on
life have been found to exert a significant
influence how they perceive & respond to
stressful events… - 100Optimistic people tend to cope with stress in more adaptive ways than pessimists…- Optimists are more likely to engage in actionoriented, problem-focused coping.
- Optimists are more willing to seek social support when stressed.
- Optimists are also more likely to emphasise the positive in their appraisal of stressful events. - 101Scheier et al (1989)- Optimists recover significantly faster from coronary bypass surgery than pessimists.
- Quality of life was substantially better for
optimistic patients six months later. - 102Maruta et al (2002) Optimism of patients assessed between 1962-1965, and later completed a follow-up assessment of their health status 30 years later.- When followed-up thirty years after initial measures were taken, pessimists
found to have a significantly higher death rate than optimists.
- Of those still alive in 1994, pessimists were found to have greater problems
with physical & psychological health, experiencing more pain, less able to
take part in social activities and less energy than optimists - 103Social supportAn individual’s social support system is the network of people (i.e. friends, family, neighbours & co-workers) who can offer help when in need. - Emotional support (e.g. love, respect) - Information & advice - Companionship - Direct physical / financial support
- 104“buffer hypothesis”People with a good social support system have been found to be less vulnerable to stress.
- 105(e.g. Uchino, Uno & Holt-Lunstad, 1999)- High social support positively correlated with
immune functioning. - 106(see Schwarzer & Leppin, 1989 for meta-analysis)- Low social support systems associated with
greater mortality risk & poorer self-reported health - 107—
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- U24125: Personality and Individual Differences Karteikarten am Stress, erstellt von Jasmine Stow am 16/04/2019.
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- Jasmine Stow · Apr 2019
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- 16 Apr 2019
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