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Long-term memory
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- 1Cohen & Squire (1980) & Squire (2007)Identified two main long-term memory systems, declarative and non-declarative.
- 2Declarative MemoryA form of long-term memory that involves knowing something is the case, involves conscious recollection & includes memory for facts (semantic memory) and events (episodic memory).
- 3Non-Declarative MemoryForms of long-term memory that influence behaviour but don't involve conscious recollection (e.g. priming, and procedural memory).
- H.M had extremely poor declarative memory but had reasonable non-declarative memory, e.g. learning ability on tasks like mirror tracing and perceptual identification. - 4Schacter & Tulving (1994 & 2000)Argued that there are 5 systems -
primary memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, perceptual memory and procedural memory.
Main disagreement is the distinction between semantic and episodic memory. - 5AmnesiaMost evidence for memory systems come from amnesic syndrome, they have problems with long-term memory. Caused mostly by bilateral stroke or closed head injury.
Most research comes from patients with Korsakoff's Syndrome (chronic alcohol abuse). - 6Disadvantages of using Korsakoff Syndrome patients- onset is gradual and brain damage is widespread (hard to interpret findings).
- Precise brain damage varies from patient to patient (hard to generalise across patients).
- Doesn't provide direct assessment of impact of brain injury on long-term memory. - 7Anterograde and Retrograde AmnesiaAnterograde - impairment in ability to remember new information after onset.
Retrograde - impairment in remembering events occurring prior to onset.
Smith (2013) - There is a strong correlation between damage to the medial temporal lobes and amnesia. - 8C.W.Had herpes simplex encephalitis, lost ability to form new memories (anterograde) and had considerable semantic memory impairment but his musical skills virtually intact.
- 9H.M.Suffered from epilepsy, in 1953 had surgery to remove most of his hippocampus. Epilepsy was under control but he became severely amnesic (anterograde) - intact STM and intact learning of perceptual and motor tasks.
- 10Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970)Amnesics performed substantially worse than non-amnesics at a recognition task but with implicit retrieval instructions, amnesics showed as much priming in word stem and word fragment tasks. Amnesics are more likely to complete word stems or fragments with previously seen words.
- 11Episodic/Semantic DistinctionThe Episodic system severely damaged = new memories cannot be made, but amnesics maintain their intelligence, language skills and knowledge (largely) prior to onset - therefore semantic system is largely intact.
- 12Cermack & O'Connor (1983)Some studies suggest that amnesics cannot acquire new semantic memories. Maybe because both brain areas are damaged?
- 13K.C.Tulving (1985) - became anmesic after motorbike accident, he could acquire new semantic memories (slowly and with alot of effort) but cannot remember these new memories/info.
- 14Vargha-Khadem (1997)Beth had bilateral hippocampal damage at birth and Jon from 4 years old.
Both had severe impairment of episodic memory but both developed normally in all other aspects like intelligence, language and knowledge. - 15Parkin (2001)Double dissociation - Perhaps semantic memories are easier to acquire because of the potential for repeated exposure.
- 16Semantic DementiaSevere loss of semantic memory even though their episodic memory is intact. They find it difficult to access information about most concepts stored in semantic memory but their performance on episodic memory tasks is good.
- 17Adlam (2009)Asked patients to remember what tasks they had done 24 hours earlier, where they were performed and when they occurred. They performed comparability to healthy controls (double dissociation).
- 18Yasuda (1997)A patient with severe anterograde amnesia who couldn't remember public event, historical figures and some vocabulary prior to onset but could remember personal experiences well.
- 19Interdependency between two systemsSemantic memory used to acquire new episodic memories.
- 20Nyberg (2003)Found that several brain areas were activated during both episodic and semantic tasks.
- 21Critique of Systems Approach- A lot of debate about criteria to define a system.
- Roediger (1999) showed how recall and recognition tasks would qualify as memory systems.
- Over-reliance on dissociations
- Parkin (1999) episodic retrieval involves right prefrontal activation whilst semantic retrieval involves left prefrontal cortex (this effect could be due to task difficulty). - 22Melton (1963)Long-term memory processes =
Encoding > Storage > Retrieval. - 23Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)- Sensory stores (iconic, echoic and haptic)
- Short-term stores (rehearsal, coding, decisions and retrieval strategies).
- Long-term memory stores (permanent memory store).
Assumption that the longer an item stays in STM through rehearsal the more likely it is to enter LTM. - 24Craik & Lockhart (1972) - Levels of ProcessingThe level or depth of processing of a stimuli has a large effect on its memorability.
Deeper levels of analysis (at encoding) produce more elaborate, longer-lasting and stronger memory traces.
Distinction between maintenance rehearsal (mere repetition) and elaborate rehearsal (more and more semantic analysis, further associations).
Only elaborate rehearsal should lead to improved LTM retrieval. - 25Craik & Tulving (1975)Shallow graphemic task (deciding whether each word is in upper or lower case) > intermediate phonemic task (decide whether each word rhymes with target word) > Deep semantic task (deciding if word fits in sentence)
- Deep semantic task produced best overall memory. - 26Critique of Levels of Processing- No independent measure of the 'depth' of processing.
- Glenberh (1977) maintenance rehearsal doesn't benefit free recall but it does appear to benefit recognition memory.
- Amnesic patients - intact deep processing but impaired LTM.
- Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) Distinctiveness effects are independent of levels of processing, it can bring phonemic encoding up to level of semantic encoding.
- Mandler (1979) item specific processing > create a sentence using stimulus word.
Relational processing > create a story with stimulus word. - 27Morris (1977) Transfer Appropriate ProcessingEmphasis not exclusively on encoding but on overlap between encoding and retrieval.
Memory performance in determined by how appropriately encoding processes transfer to retrieval (their compatibility). However, the semantic-semantic combination produces superior retrieval to phonemic-phonemic combination. - 28Tulving & Thomson (1973) Encoding Specificity PrincipleA retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information in the cue was incorporated in the trace of the target event at the time of processing.
TAP emphasises compatibility of process not match between pieces of information. - 29Godden & Baddeley (1975) Context Dependent MemoryIf you receive information in the same context as encoding you will have higher performance/retrieval.
- 30Critique of Encoding & Retrieval Link- Nairne (2002) link between encoding and retrieval processes match is correlational not casual.
- Roediger & Guynn (1996) two things determine retrieval > match between encoding and retrieval cues and principle of cue overload (Watkins, 1975).
- Nairne (2002) argues that the diagnostic value of the retrieval cue is whats important, how well the cues specify a particular target item to the exclusion of others.
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