Karteikarten
PSYC 2360 II
Karten in diesem Stapel (151)
- 1What is the histological method to study the brain?the brain is sectioned and sliced postmortem and neuronal loss is examined
- 2What are the advantages of the histological method?best and most precise method for understanding how certain diseases advance; neuron reduction (atrophy) can be stained and counted in order to obtain precise measurements
- 3What area of the brain is the first target of Alzheimer's disease?the hippocampus
- 4Describe the positron emission Tomography (PET):detects changes in blood flow by measuring changes in the uptake of compounds such as oxygen or glucose; the parts of the brain that require more energy will use more glucose
- 5What is a disadvantage of the PET scan?requires a radioactive tracer compound to be injected into the bloodstream
- 6Describe a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)changes in the oxygen content of the blood alter its magnetic properties
functional - while a person carries out a task - 7Describe near infrared spectroscopy:used for very young infants at risk for developing autism; uses infrared light to look at how oxygenated the blood is
- 8What is an advantage and a disadvantage of near-infrared spectroscopy?completely noninvasive but doesn't go very deep into the brain
- 9Describe a computerized tomography:x-ray brain is passed through the brain at many different angles to create many images; static imaging
- 10Describe magnetic resonance imaging:a static 3D image; more detail than a CT and can identify specific brain tissue
- 11Describe diffusion tensor imaging: (DTI)detect directional movement of water molecules to image nerve fibre pathways; can detect issues in the pathways due to tumours etc.
- 12Describe brain stimulation and who pioneered it:Wilder Penfield, a Canadian neurosurgeon who used an electrical current to induce or inhibit a behavioural response while the subject is awake; can be conducted at different depths
- 13What are the three factors that affect how a drug can enter the body and affect the brain:speed of action, barriers and dosage
- 14What are the disadvantages of oral administration of drugs?has the most barriers it has to pass through the digestive system to make it to the bloodstream; higher dosage necessary; slowest acting
- 15What are the advantages of absorption through skin tissue over oral administration:administered through the skin or through sublingual absorption; fewer barriers and gets to the brain faster; therefore less dosage is requires
- 16Describe how drugs enter the body through inhalation:through the nasal mucosa and lung tissue and get absorbed into the brain very quickly
is very fast acting with fewer barriers and lower dosage is needed - 17What is the purest form of introducing drugs to the bloodstream?injection; very fast and lowest dosage is required
- 18Why is it difficult to gain access to the brain?capillaries in the brain have stronger tight junctions than the rest of the body; BBB is designed to separate blood from brain matter
- 19What is the role of the BBB?prevents large molecule substances from entering the brain via the bloodstream; lots of potentially helpful drugs cannot pass the BBB - 98% of drugs that could be used to treat various illnesses cannot get past
- 20Name the 3 areas where neurons and blood interact:area postreme
pineal gland
pituitary gland - 21Area Postrema:triggers the vomiting response; has to be able to monitor the blood for toxic substances
- 22Pineal gland:circadian rhythm; entry of chemicals that affect day-night cycles
- 23Pituitary gland:various hormones n the body
- 24How does the liver eliminate drugs from the body?breaks the drugs down into their component molecules and expel them from the body; can slowly get more efficient
- 25How do most psychoactive drugs exert their effects?by inducing synaptic chemical signalling, which effects the synthesis and release, binding to the postsynaptic receptor or inactivation
- 26what is an agonist?substance that enhances the function of neurotransmitters at a synapse; makes the receptors more sensitive and blocks the reuptake; promotes the effects of the neurotransmitter
- 27Antagonist:substance that blocks or decreases the function of neurotransmitters at the synapse; blocks the receptors; blocks effects of a neurotransmitter
- 28What is tolerance:a response to a drug weakens with repeated use; habituated response; requires more drug to attain an equal or lesser effect as it is metabolized more efficiently through the liver and cells
- 29What are the two types of tolerance?metabolic tolerance and cellular tolerance
- 30metabolic tolerance:liver processes drug more efficiently
- 31Cellular tolerancerepeated simulation at the synapse results in less neurotransmitter being released either due to less Ca+ or less neurotransmitter being available
- 32What is the difference between physiological and psychological dependence?physiological dependence results in withdrawal symptoms, the severity of which depends on the drug, whereas the psychological dependence happens after and is independent of physiology; craving that leads to addiction
- 33How does drug dependence rely on conditioning?positive and negative reinforcement: good effect of the drug and staving off unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
- 34What can make a drug more addictive, and therefore more likely to be abused?rapid absorption by the CNS to produce quick and strong effects
have a shorter half life - meaning that the effect doesn't last as long so you need more of the drug
abused drugs increase dopamine activity either directly or indirectly - 35What is the main area of the reward pathway?the nucleus accumbens
- 36What is the striatum involved in?the actual habit/ritual of taking the drug
- 37What is the role of the hippocampus in drug addiction?records the behaviour and remembers the good effect
- 38What is the role of the frontal lobe in drug addiction?involves inhibition/lack of and decisions
- 39What are the 4 broad classifications fo drugs?Excitatory
Inhibitory
Visual/auditory (hallucinogens)
Pain relief - 40What are some examples of anti anxiety drugs/sedative hypnotics?Benzodiazepines (minor tranquilizers)
Barbiturates (alcohol) - 41What are the symptoms and risks of anti anxiety drugs or sedatives?produces sedation and can induce sleep/general anesthesia
too high a rate can cause coma and death - 42What is cross tolerance?becoming tolerant to alcohol can cause a tolerance to valium because they operate on cells in the same way, therefore tolerance to one can lead to tolerance in the other
- 43Why can it be dangerous to mix two similar drugs?it would cause a double dose of the same effect; the GABA-a receptor has 2 binding sites
- 44What are the neurophysiological effects of alcohol?a barbiturate that leads indirectly to the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens; heavy long-term use alters GABA-a receptors
- 45What are factors that affect the effects of alcohol and what are some withdrawal symptoms?concurrent food intake affects absorption amount and rate
withdrawal leads to anxiety, convulsions, and occasionally seizures - 46What are some examples of dissociative anesthetics?GHB, which is taken orally and has rapid absorption; at higher doses can cause dizziness, sleep and vomiting
Ketamine, which is a surgical anesthetic that has hallucinatory and pain relieving qualities that inhibits spinal neurons; can create out of body experiences and alter reality - 47What was the first antipsychotic drug?chlorpromazine in 1952; was originally intended as a general aesthetic for the French Army, but made people very social and ended up treating schizophrenia
- 48Describe first generation antipsychotics, including their symptoms and side effects:dopamine antagonists (theory that dopamine causes schizophrenia)
positive symptoms: hallucinations
negative symptoms: lack of emotion
Side effects include tar dive dyskinesia (stereotypes movements) and anhedonia (opposite of hedonism, lack of enjoyment - 49Describe second generation antipsychotics:weakly block dopamine receptors but also block serotonin receptors; are more involved in the audio and visual hallucinations
- 50What are the characteristics of having major depression?mood disorder characterized by listlessness, low energy, low motivation; disruption of normal life and general slowing of behaviour
- 51What are the neurotransmitters involved in major depression?dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
- 52Describe the two types of first generation antidepressants:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants
- 53Describe monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO)block the breakdown of an enzyme so that more serotonin is available for release (agonist - promotes effect of the NT)
- 54What are some side effects of tricyclic antidepressants?dizziness, changes in blood pressure, dietary restrictions
- 55What are the two types of second generation antidepressants?SSRIs: agonists that block the reuptak elf serotonin
NERIs
Easily pass BBB with a long half life - 56Which area of the brain do we ind neurogenesis?hippocampus
- 57What are the effects of depression and antidepressants on neurogenesis?people who are depressed have depressed neurogenesis and antidepressants can increase neurogenesis; time for an antidepressant to work is around 4 week, same amount of time for new cells to migrate
- 58What are the two natural sources of opioid analgesics?the brain; endorphins
opium poppy; used for thousands of years to produce euphoria and sleep - 59What is morphine and when was it discovered?synthesized from the active ingredient in opium in 1805
- 60What is the difference between heroin and morphine?first synthesized from morphine in the 1890s; has a shorter half life compared to morphine and twice the potency; highly addictive pain relief and penetrates the BBB faster than morphone
- 61What is naloxone?an opioid antagonist; in a dependent user, it will quickly produce withdrawal symptoms and can potentially reverse an overdose
- 62What is fentanyl?analgesic potency about 80x that of morphine; has rapid absorption across the BBB and intended as a patch
- 63Describe the general characteristics of stimulants:increase motor behaviour and elevate mood and level of alertness; increase metabolic activity; tends to be fast acting; direct interaction with dopaminergic system
- 64describe the effects of caffeine at the cellular level:leads to increased production of glucose; more energy is available and this allows for higher rates of cellular activity (used to treat ADHD)
increases alertness and has a long half life - 65How long does it take for nicotine smoke to reach the brain, and when is the peak concentration?7-10 seconds and peak concentration at 5 minutes
- 66What are some symptoms of smoking nicotine?high saturation of cerebral nicotine receptors; decreased concentration associated with withdrawal; suppresses appetite
- 67Describe nicotine withdrawal:starts hours after the last cigarette; craving, anxiety, irritability, and increased appetite
will peak after a few days and then subside between 2 and 4 weeks - 68What is the least successful way to attempt to quit smoking?to simply cut down on the amount of cigarettes because heavy smokers are very sensitive to changes in nicotine content
- 69How does cocaine affect the body when snorted?absorbed through the nasal mucosa; limited rate of absorption that is affected by recurrent use
fast response and euphoric effects last about 30-45 minutes - 70How does cocaine affect the body hen smoked or injected?burning alters the absorption rate and its chemical properties make it more volatile
smoking reaches the brain in 7s
injection 15s - 71What are some withdrawal symptoms of cocaine?anxiety, depression, and strong craving for up to 10 weeks
- 72Which pathway does cocaine engage directly?dopamine reward pathway
- 73What are the two secondary neurotransmitter that engage with cocaine?norepinephrine and serotonin
- 74Is the rate of tolerance fast or slow?fast
- 75What are factors that can affect the effects of cocaine?hormonal differences between men and women, and concurrent alcohol use
- 76Are amphetamine and cocaine ago agonists or antagonists?agonists: block the reuptake of dopamine and amphetamine promotes the release of dopamine
- 77Is chlorpromazine an agonist or antagonist?antagonist
- 78What are the effects of both high and low doses of methamphetamine?low doses elevate mood, increase energy, and alertness
Higher doses can produce hallucinations, and psychosis similar to schizophrenia - 79What are some side effects of lone time use of meth?limbic and mid-brain cell loss
reduced hippocampal volume that results in memory loss - 80How long does MDMA take to act and how long does it last?30 minutes to act and long lasting, for around 4 hours
- 81What are the effects of MDMA and what NT does it act on?typically ingested in pill form that causes a sense of euphoria and heightened awareness; acts on serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine
- 82What are the effects of psychedelics or hallucinogens?alter sense of perception and produce vivid hallucinations
Include LSD and mescaline - 83Who discovered the first psychedelic drug?Albert Hoffman, who tested it on himself and his colleagues in 1943
- 84What are some effects of hallucinogens and what NT do they act upon and how?experiences vary greatly between users from frightening to euphoric
Serotonin agonist - 85How much cortical area is devoted to vision?more than any other sensation
- 86What is neural convergence126 million rods and cones converge 1 million ganglion cells
- 87Is there a higher convergence of rods or cones?rods
- 88On average, how many rods to one ganglion cell?120 rods
- 89What is the function of the rods?provides greater light sensitivity; they are more sensitive to light because there is more of them
- 90How many cones are there to a ganglion cell?average of 6 cones
- 91What is different about the cones in the fovea?have a one to one relation to ganglion cells
- 92What is the function of the cones?provides greater visual acuity and allows us to see colour
- 93What forms the fibres of the optic nerve?the axons of the ganglion cells
- 94What are the two types of ganglion cells?M cells
P cells - 95What are M cells?magno cellular; receive information only from rods
- 96What are P cells?parvocelluar; receive information only from cones
- 97What is the function of the ganglion cells?transmits the signals out of the eye towards the brain; the visual field is divided into left and right in each eye
- 98What is the optic chasm?the point where some visual signals cross over to the opposite hemisphere
- 99Describe the way that the field of vision is divided:signals from the right half of each retina stay in the right hemisphere and the signals from the left stay in the left
the right visual field is processed in the left hemisphere - 100Can signals return to the retina?no, because the axons of the ganglion cells are action potentials travelling down the axon and can only go one way
- 101Where fo the majority of these signals go?the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) which is part of the thalamus; this signal form the LGN to the visual cortex is two ways
- 102What are the three pathways for the visual signals?1. tectopulvinar pathway (superior colliculus)
2. retinohypothalamic pathway (hypothalamus)
3. geniculostriate pathway (LGN) - 103Describe the brain structures involved in the tectopulvinar pathway:signals from the retina to the superior colliculus to the thalamus (pulvinar)
the pathways leads to the superior colliculus in the brainstem, which then sends information to the pulvinar - 104What is the role of the tectopulvinar pathway?involved in coordinating reflexive eye movements and integrates auditory and visual information
- 105Describe the retinohypothalamic pathway?small portion of M cell synapses in the hypothalamus
receive signals only from the M cells, who relay lighting conditions to the hypothalamus - 106What is the role fo the retinohypothalamic pathway?controls the pupil reflex, and regulates the circadian clock (day/night cycle)
- 107What does the geniculostriate pathway do? What are the respective roles of the right and left LGN?the most signals project from the retina to the LGN then onward to the visual cortex
right LGN: input from the right halves of each retina, which is the left visual field
left LGN: input from left halves; right visual field - 108Describe the 6 layers of the Geniculostriate pathway:layers 1,4, & 6: input from contralateral retina
layers 2, 3, & 5: input from ipsilateral retina
layers 1 and 2: input from M cells
layers 3-6: input from P cells - 109Describe the retinotopic map:construct within the LGN; each area of the retina has a corresponding area in the LGN and organizes information
- 110What did Hubel and Wiesel study?the receptive fields along the visual pathway; observed that response properties of neurons change at different points along the pathway
- 111What type fo experiment did they do to explore this concept?anesthetized animals with their eyes open so that they are still taking in the visual world, then record along different parts on the pathway and see how the cells responsed
- 112What did they find about the response properties of neurons?changed whether you were recording from a ganglion cell, the LGN or the visual cortex
- 113What is the pathway?eye > optic nerve > LGN <> visual cortex
- 114What is the receptive field of vision?receptive fields of many retinal cells combine to form the receptive fields of a single LGN, then the receptive fields of many LGN cells form the receptive field of a single V1 cell (visual cortex)
- 115What are simple cells?are located only in the visual cortex and respond to static lines of light from specific orientations; the more the light deviates from that orientation, the less of a response it will get
- 116What are complex cells?cells that respond to movement; a line of light that needs to move in a particular direction; the more you move away from that specific orientation it will respond less
each cell responds to one specific light stimulus - 117What happens to the signals as they travels down the visual pathway?become more specific and streamlined
- 118In the visual cortex, there is more area devoted to what?processing the fovea
- 119What is the striate cortex?cells in the visual cortex that have horizontal section
- 120What are the wavelengths that determine which colour?shorter = blue; middle = green; longer = orange and red
- 121What is the difference between additive and subtractive colour mixing?additive process will create white light and subtractive will create black
- 122Describe the colour matching experiment used to develop the trichromatic theory of colour vision?one field of light referred to as the test field; in the comparison field, the person has access to three lights and has to match the test field with their three lights; had the entire colour spectrum with three lights
- 123What is dichromatism?red-green colour deficiency
- 124What is a tetrochromat?able to see ultraviolet; bees are tetrochromat
- 125What are aposematic animals?toxic or poisonous animals to predators that hide in plain sight; have bight colours that signal that they are toxic
ex: black widow - 126What else can colour signify? Give an example:can signal fitness, for example, satin bowerbirds
male bowerbirds attract mates with bright plumage and form bower nests with bright colours - 127Which animal has the largest number of receptor types and how many do they have:Mantis shrimp has 12 colour receptors; doesn't have very good colour distinction
- 128What is opponent process theory?colour vision is marked by opposing responses; ratio of cone responses allows for finer colour receptors
- 129What is colour constancy?phenomenon whereby an object’s perceived colour tends to remain constant regardless of changes in illumination
- 130What is lightness constancy?same concept as colour constancy, but with whites, greys, and blacks
some things are lighter or darker depending on light source - 131What is a reflecting edge and illuminating edge?reflecting less or more light and appears darker; something appears darker because it is less illuminated (in shadow)
- 132What is White's illusion?perceive one object as being lighter than the other when they are the same colour, just based on the colour you compare it to (white/black)
- 133Which wavelengths are more/less dangerous for humans?the shorter the wavelength, the more dangerous it is
the longer wavelengths are less dangerous
measures in nanometre - 134What is the role of the pupil?determines how much light does in and out of the eye through dilation or constriction
- 135What is the iris?the colour of the eye
- 136What is the function of the eye musclesallow pupil to contract or dilate
- 137What causes the blind spot in our vision?devoid of receptors and cells; has neurons that leave the cell; has axons of ganglion cells
- 138What is the lens?muscles bend it and helps you to focus
- 139Myopia:near-sighted, can see up close; the most common
- 140Hyperopia:far-sighted, far away things are in focus
- 141Describe the retina:thin layer of neural tissue lining the back of the eye; contains rods and cones
receptors receive information that is sent to the ganglion cells and along the optic nerve - 142What are the 5 types of cells in the retina?rods and cones (receptors)
horizontal cells
bipolar cells
amacrine cells
ganglion cells - 143Rods and cones:receptors at the back, receive information and sent it to the ganglion cells
- 144horizontal cells:allow cells to communicate with each other
- 145Amacrine cells:communication between ganglion cells
- 146bipolar cells:go between cells from receptors to ganglion
- 147ganglionform the optic nerve
- 148Describe the fovea:no rods, only cones; looking directly at something and holding it in focus; most cones are found here
- 149macular degeneration:loss of cones on the fovea
- 150retinas pigmentosalose rods on the periphery and the cones are fine
- 151Which receptors are more sensitive to light?rods; and they are more numerous than cones
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- Beschreibung
- Brain and Behaviour Karteikarten am PSYC 2360 II, erstellt von Chantal Delaquis am 27/02/2018.
- Erstellt von
- Chantal Delaquis
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