Theory and Methods

Theory and Methods

1. Position 1

   • 1. Structure determines action
   • Althussar
     • society is a social formation- made of three different structures, economical, political and ideological levels
     • IDA and RDA
   • Social structure
     • "pre-existing social structure within which people live, and continues after we die"
       • eg. a child speaks a language they didn't create, and it continues to be spoken after the child dies
     • macro level of analysis
       • they consider how elements of a society (social institutions, cultures) shape peoples behaviours
       • reproduced orderly patterns cause our behaviour
     • social structure can't be observed directly
       • so reification is used
         • Reification
           • behavior is determined by social structure, not the actions of people
   • Society as a social unit
     • Durkheim
       • We place collective values on social facts
         • money, law & langauge
       • Social facts are objective, so therefore can be measured
         • they exist before us, and beyond us- limiting our actions
       • Suicide
         • a level of external constraint in society could shape individual behaviour
           • a persons connection to to a society can affect their behaviour
       • social facts explains how any individuals actions can be shaped by wider society
     • Parsons
       • society is a functional unit
       • people have the capacity to make decisions
       • core values and norms create social intergration
       • society is made up of interlinked systems
         • social systems, personality system, cultural system
           • for these to survive they must fulfill functional pre-requisites
       • social structures link to social action which lets people choose their own actions
         • therefore pattern variables are the range of dilemma's/choices that people encounter in social action
       • Evaluation
         • Merton
           • materialism
             • people are motivated by material interests
               • people don't always conform to the core values of society, but do accept the goals of society
                 • stealing to have nice things
               • disadvantages affect people
           • argues against...
             • functional unity
             • universal functionalism
             • indispensibility
           • ignores conflicts in society
             • neglects meanings that individuals give to situations
         • Giddens
           • deterministic
             • it fails to explain hoe individuals produce roles- instead suggesting it is a passive process which ignores people breaking the rules in society
             • over stresses the extent of the consensus in society
             • ignores inequalities of capitalist societies and diversion between social groups
   • Frankfurt School
     • critical of instrumental reason- resources and people are seen as tools rather than sources of genuine fullfillment
     • critical of the domination of the mass media- generates false needs that prevent creativity
   • Marx
     • infrastructure shapes superstructure
       • e.g. economic base controls society
       • superstructure protects and supports the infrastructure
         • political and legal systems protect the rights of capitalists to take profits
         • ruling ideas are the ideas of the working class
   • Gramsci
     • stability of capitalist societies was due to hegemony or ideological domination of the w/c
     • collective action led by intellectuals could cause radical social change
       • student fee's demonstrations of 2005
   • Feminists
     • Walby
       • men oppress women
         • home, work, state and cultural institutions
       • patriarchy is private and public
     • Liberal
       • there should be equal rights for men and women
       • people should be treated according to merit
       • prejudice and stereotypes prevent equality
       • these should be removed at "grass roots" and official levels
     • Radical
       • basic conflict between men and women
       • systems of patriarchy
         • we should separate men and women
     • Marxist
       • women are a reserve army of labour
       • excluded from male trading and crafts
       • abolish capitalism
     • Black
       • integrates racism and class
     • Postmodern
       • gender is fluid
       • no fundamental essence of gender
     • Connell
       • male power perpetuates gender inequality
   • Social Action
     • Weber
       • tried to understand human action rather than over-generalised theories
       • 4 ideal types of social action
         • Traditional action
         • Affective actions
         • Rational value
         • Rational goal-orientated action
       • Rational value orientated & goal orientated actions are suitable for interpretive analysis
         • interpretive analysis = trying to understand how people interpret live events
         • because it is reflective action, not just automatic behaviours
         • modern societies favours rational goal orientated actions
           • this has allowed society to become an iron cage where all ideas have to be rational, e.g. not myth or magic
       • methodological individualism
         • suggests that all explanations can be reduced to actions of the individual, not the social structures
           • society is dependent on agents
     • Agency
       • the ability to act independently of structure (free will)
     • Ritzer
       • rationalisation
         • process of domination where people are becoming de-humanised automated and uniform
           • through emphasising efficiancy, calculability, predictability and control through machines

2. Position 2

   • 2. No such thing as society beyond action
   • Goffman
     • dramaturgical analogy
       • our social encounters have scenery that defines the situation for the actors and props used to enhance our performance
       • social world is represented as a play in which the various members of society adopt certain roles and speak certain lines
     • Shetland Islanders
       • rich inside, poor outside to landlords
     • some experience stigmatised or spoiled identities
       • stigma occurs as a result of how others view these behaviours
   • Mead
     • Symbolic interactionism
       • human life is based on the use of symbols
         • through language and communication, symbols and communication, symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed
       • society is actively shaped by individuals and the meaning they attach to everyday things
       • "argues interaction and meaning are the basis of society. social order is based on totality of social interactions"
     • small scale interactions within small social groups
       • successful interactions takes place when group members share meaning of nature of situations
         • shared meaning is achieved through the interpretation of symbols
     • must be aware of other peoples points of view
       • empathy
     • definitions
       • social interaction = individuals understanding symbols which have common meanings
       • social order = is a products of patterned actions of everyday life
       • shared meanings used to understand the world
     • ability to reflect on own self has 2 parts
       • 'I' -reflective part
       • 'me' exists for others
     • our behavior is not shaped by pre-programmed instincts, it is our response to the world by giving meanings to things that are significant to us
   • Becker
     • Labelling
       • peoples reactions shape what we consider to be deviant
       • during social interaction, a person defines the situation as real
   • Garfinkel
     • Ethnomethodogly
       • methods to create a sense of order
       • the reasons why we place meaning or create social rules
     • 'breaching experiments'
       • e.g. not taking turns in conversations
       • it was believed that participants were suffering from mental illnesses or had taken drugs
   • symbols stand for other objects and imply certain behaviours
     • e.g. a chair implies an object you can sit on
   • humans don't have instincts so rely on symbols in order to survive and interact
   • meanings and symbols are largely shared by members of society
   • in order to understand other people, we should put ourselves in their shoes
     • understand the reasons of their behaviour
   • people have a 'self' that is the way they view themselves
     • largely reflects how other people react to them
       • by taking the role of the other, we build up a self concept

3. Position 3

   • 3. Structure and agency are not seperate
   • Giddens
     • structuration
       • people are knowledgeable about the social world
       • people have their own motivations
       • there are no laws of life, so sociology is not a science
       • people create and reproduce existing social practices all the time
       • social structures consist of rules and resources
       • social structure and social action are closely linked
         • duality of structure
           • they are an integral part of one another
           • redefines social structure as rules and resources
   • social action
     • traditional action
     • rational goal orientated action
     • rational value orientated action
     • affective actions

4. Position 4

   • 4. Structure and agency are linked
   • Habermas
     • combines theories of society, social systems and social interactions
       • created a general theory of communicative as a result
     • action is based on the achievement of shared understanding
     • initial systems are interwoven but over time they become separate
     • validity claims are part of the life world
       • they act as stocks of knowledge that enable controversial exchanges to occur
     • we gained shared assumptions that we use to communicate within our societies
   • factual
     • you must buy a new car because your old one always breaks
     • normative
       • you should buy a new car because someone on your income should have a better one
       • subjective
         • i would feel safer if i had a new car