PUNCTUATION

PUNCTUATION

1. 1) TERMINAL PUNCTUATION

   • 1) FULL STOPS
     • ERRORS
       • 1) DOUBLE SPACES - Use Find & Replace tool
       • 2) CITING A SOURCE - only one full stop after (Grant,2016).
       • 3) ENDING ON ABBREVIATION - do not add another full stop
       • 4) MISSING FULL STOPS - often before a Proper Noun
       • 5) COMMA SPLICES - cannot join 2 independent clauses with a comma
         • Change to 2 sentences or replace with a CONJUCTION or semi colon
   • 2) QUESTION MARKS
     • ISSUES
       • 1) RHETORICAL QUESTIONS - not needed if sentence is not requiring an answer & is stylistic preference
       • 2) INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH -not needed when a writer reports what someone said rather than exact words
   • 3) EXCLAMATION MARKS
     • ISSUES
       • 1) FORMAL & ACADEMIC - do not use
       • 2) FICTION & INFORMAL - use sparingly & leave a comment if too many

2. 2) COMMAS (should not come at the expense of readability)

   • 1) MARKING NON RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES
     • 1) When the clause is not essential to the rest of the sentence - commas used either side of the clause
     • 'SUCH HAS' sentences - 1) RESTRICTIVELY (clarifies what a sentence is about) NO COMMA 2) NON RESTRICTIVELY (to introduce an example without changing the meaning of the sentence) USE COMMAS
   • 3) CONJUNCTIONS - (speech that connects words, phrases, clauses & sentences)
     • 4) COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
       • 1) Commas only used BEFORE coordinating conj. when they are joining two independent clauses
       • F - for, A - and, N - nor, B - but, O - or, Y - yet, S - so
       • 2) Not needed when linking words/phrases within one clause unless it ensures clarity
     • 5) SUBORDINATING (dependent) CONJUNCTIONS
       • e.g. because, before, when
       • 1) Only use before a subordinating conj. when its needed to avoid ambiguity
       • 2) If the subordinate/dependent clause comes before the independent/main clause, then use a comma
   • 2) SEPARATING ADDITIONAL INFO
     • 1) INTRO WORDS & PHRASES
       • CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB ('however', 'meanwhile') - MUST use comma when sentence begins with this
       • SHORT INTRO CLAUSE - can use comma, check for consistency
     • 2) PARENTHETICAL CLAUSES
       • (often mid sentence) use commas to mark non essential info - non restrictive clause or other non essential info
       • can use commas to set apart individual words, especially adverbs (too, though) (SP)
     • 3) INFO AT THE END OF THE SENTENCE - (if info is non essential - use a comma)
       • 1) non restrictive clauses, 2) examples, 3) after thoughts, 4) contrasts or contrary details
   • 4) SEPARATING ITEMS IN A LIST
     • Use commas to separate items in a list of more than three things
     • OXFORD COMMA - used before the conjunction and final item on the list
       • Mainly used in US english but use for both when it adds clarity to a sentence
   • 5) SEPARATING COORDINATE ADJECTIVES
     • 1) Use commas to separate adjectives when more than one term modifies a noun in a similar way
       • TEST FOR COORDINATE ADJECTIVES - 1) review back to Adjective Order List, 2) put 'AND' between them to see if they sound right
   • 6) INTRODUCING QUOTATIONS & SPOKEN DIALOGUE
     • QUOTATIONS
       • Commas often used to introduce a quotation (often after an intro word such as 'says', or 'according to
         • Not needed when the quote follows from the rest of the sentence such as when it comes after the word 'that'
     • SPOKEN DIALOGUE
       • In fiction, commas are used to separate spoken dialogue from the rest of the sentence. e.g. - 'I don't know how to use commas,' said David, panicking, 'but I want to learn!'
         • DIRECT ADDRESS (VOCATIVE CASE) - WHen a statement is directed at someone named in the text - use a comma. e.g. - Lord, help me to understand commas!

3. 3) COLONS & SEMI COLONS - connective punctuation marks, used to show a relationship between clauses

   • COLONS
     • A MARK OF EXPECTATION - they always signal that something is going to be introduced - 1) DEFINITION, 2) EXAMPLE, 3) EXPLANATION
       • A) The info after the colon should be more specific than the statement that precedes it.
         • B) when used to join statements, the text before a colon should be a full sentence colons do NOT have to be followed by a complete sentence
     • USE TO INTRODUCE LISTS
       • HORIZONTAL (in a sentence) & VERTICAL ( list starts on new line) The choice depends on number of items and type of document
     • EXAMPLES & BLOCK QUOTES ON A SEPARATE LINE
       • Can be used to introduce an example or explanation when it appears on a separate line from the main text, also a block quote
     • CAPITALISATION
       • 1) UK ENGLISH - 1st word after colon is only capitalised when there is a Proper noun or acronym 2) US ENGLISH - full sentences after the colon are sometimes capitalised
     • COMMON ERRORS
       • 1) ADDING A DASH AFTER THE COLON - (delete this)
       • 2) TITLES & SUBTITLES
         • A colon can be used to divide a title and subititle only and must not end with the colon. IF the subtitle appears in the main body of the essay, then do not use.
       • 3) UNNECESSARY COLONS
         • COLONS - Imply and addition to a main clause. They are not needed when the subsequent info follows naturally from the sentence and also if the info before is NOT a full sentence.
   • SEMI COLONS
     • SEMI COLONS LINK RELATED INDEPENDENT CLAUSES - TO LINK EQUALLY WEIGHTED SENTENCES. ALWAYS CHECK WHEHTER THE STATEMENTS ON EITHER SIDE OF A SEMI COLON ARE FULL SENTENCES AND HOW THEY ARE RELATED
       • 1) SEMI COLONS ALSO USED LIKE THIS WHEN A SENTENCE BEGINS WITH A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB
         • e.g. also, accordingly, besides, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, however
       • 2) SEMI COLONS IN LISTS - only applies when the listed items are complex or already contain commas
     • COMMON ERRORS - normally occur when a comma or colon should be used
       • SEMI COLONS & COLONS
         • 1) Watch out for semi colons instead of colons being used to introduce lists
         • 2) watch out for semi colons used in sentence fragments instead of commas. Does the info that follows work as a sentence by itself?
       • SEMI COLONS & COMMAS
         • 1) Watch out for semi colons being used instead of commas - when either side is not a full sentence
         • 2) Use a comma and not a semi colon sentence with 2 independent clauses and a coordinating conjunction UNLESS there are 2 long sentences already containing commas and a coordinating conjunction. Or turn into 2 sentences.

4. 4) APOSTROPHES

   • POSSESSION
     • 1) POSITIONING - depends on the noun modified
       • SINGULAR NOUNS
         • place between the end of the word and the plural S
       • REGULAR PLURAL NOUNS
         • place after the S
       • WORDS ENDING IN S - TWO ACCEPTED METHODS
         • 1) add an apostrophe and possessive S 2) Leave out the possessive S and just have an apostrophe
     • 2) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
       • Possessive pronouns DO NOT need apostrophes
         • its, yours, ours, his, hers, theirs
     • SHARED POSSESSION - referring to more than one person
       • CO-OWNED - use apostrophe on the last name only
       • SEPARATE OWNERSHIP - use apostrophe on each name
     • TEMPORAL EXPRESSIONS
       • SINGLE UNITS OF TIME - add ' and S
       • PLURAL UNITS OF TIME - add ' after the plural S
       • using OF - no apostrophe is used
     • POSSESSIVE vs ATTRIBUTIVE NOUNS
       • ATTRIBUTIVE NOUNS - function as an adjective and modifies another noun. They can also be PLURAL POSSESSIVE NOUNS so apostrophe confusion occurs
       • 1) Include the apostrophe UNLESS there is no issue of possession or 2) style guide advises against or 3) Conventionally named
   • CONTRACTIONS
     • WORDS WITH MISSING LETTERS - apostrophes are used
       • ARE INFORMAL - do not use in formal or academic writing
         • apostrophes can be used for old fashioned or archaic dialogue - check consistent & not too much
   • APOSTROPHES IN PLURALS
     • GROCER'S APOSTROPHE
       • DO NOT USE an apostrophe in nouns that are plural but NOT possessive
         • DO NOT USE - 1) InitIalisms - e.g. CDs, 2) Numbers & Years - e.g. 1960s, 3) non nouns used as nouns - e.g. ifs and buts, 4) to form plurals of lower case letters - use capitals instead - e.g. Ps & Qs
           • NB - MUST USE ' FOR OMISSION OF YEARS - e.g. '90s

5. 5) QUOTATION MARKS

   • 1) SINGLE OR DOUBLE
     • UK & OZ
       • QUOTES - use SINGLE quote marks
       • QUOTES WITHIN QUOTES - DOUBLE
     • US
       • QUOTES - DOUBLE
       • QUOTES WITHIN QUOTES - SINGLE
     • NB - CHECK STYLE GUIDE AS THIS CAN BE CHANGED
   • 2) FULL STOPS & COMMAS
     • UK & OZ
       • PUT INSIDE when they are PART of the QUOTED MATERIAL ONLY
         • EXCEPTION - PUT INSIDE FOR DIALOGUE IN FICTION
     • US
       • ALWAYS GOES INSIDE
   • 3) EXCLAMATION POINTS & QUESTION MARKS
     • ALL REGIONS
       • INSIDE if PART OF the quotation
         • If the quote ends on this & within - NORMALLY no need to add full stop after.
       • OUTSIDE if part of SURROUNDING text
   • 4) COLONS, SEMI COLONS & DASHES
     • 1) If part of quoted text - INSIDE. 2) OUTSIDE for everything else
   • 5) CAPITALISATION
     • When the quote begins in the middle of a sentence:
       • 1) CAPITAL - when quoting a complete sentence
       • 2) DO NOT - when quoting part of a sentence
   • 6) TITLES
     • QUOTATION MARKS OR ITALICS?
       • ITALICISED - LONGER WORKS - books, films, tv shows & other standalones
       • QUOTE MARKS - SHORTER WORKS - poems, songs, journal articles and tv episodes
       • CHECK STYLE GUIDE - as this can differ
   • 7) UNNECESSARY QUOTATION MARKS
     • 2) USING FOR EMPHASIS
       • REMOVE THESE
     • 1) SCARE QUOTES - BORROWED, IRONIC, DUBIOUS TERMS
       • Advise author to use once only to introduce the term & check style guide
     • 3) REPORTED SPEECH
       • NOT NEEDED - only for direct speech

6. 6) HYPHENS/ EN & EM DASHES

   • 1) HYPHENS
     • WHEN TO HYPHENATE
       • 1) CONVENTIONALLY HYPHENATED WORDS - E.G. SISTER-IN-LAW
       • 2) AVOIDING LETTER COLLISION WHEN ADDING A PREFIX - E.G RE-ELECT
         • 1) Prefixes EX- & SELF- are always followed by hyphens
         • 2) RE-, ANTI-, UN- prefixes depend on the word used - A) to avoid letter collision, B) when its followed by a Proper Noun
         • 3) it's not always needed for the letter O - e.g. COOPERATE & COORDINATE (hyphens also accepted though!)
       • 3) USING A COMPOUND ADJECTIVE BEFORE THE WORD IT MODIFIES - E.G. FREE-RANGE EGG
         • COMPOUND ADJECTIVE - more than 1 adjective making a word
       • 4) FOR CLARITY - E.G. RE-COUNT & RECOUNTED
       • 5) HYPHENS & NUMBERS
         • Use when referring to ages & time spans written out (21-99 only)
     • WHEN NOT TO HYPHENATE
       • Many hyphenated words can be written as closed or open compunds depending on usage & author
       • Compounds formed with the adverb VERY & adverbs ending in -LY are never hyphenated
   • 2) EN DASHES (width of an n)
     • 1) RANGES OF NUMBERS - E.G. 1509-1547
     • 2) SCORES - E.G. 4-0
     • 3) CONFLICT OR CONNECTION - E.G. Mason-Dixon, liberal-conservative debate
     • 4) LINKING WORDS IN COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
       • Compound adjectives that already include open compounds or proper nouns - e.g. public school - educated minister, Debbie Harry - like singer
     • 5) PARENTHETICALLY - UK ENGLISH
     • MS WORD - auto corrects a hyphen to en dash when used with a space between 2 words. OR - hold down alt key and type 0150
   • 3) EM DASHES (width of an m)
     • 1) USED TO SET OFF PARENTHETICAL INFO
       • Not normally spaced but some style guide need a space before & after
     • 2) USE LIKE A COLON
       • At the end of a sentence to introduce extra info
     • 3) INTERRUPTED DIALOGUE
       • in fiction - e.g ' We need to cut the --'. And then the
     • MS WORD - type two hyphens between two words OR hold down the alt key and type 0151

7. 7) ELLIPSES

   • 1) OMITTING TEXT IN A QUOTATION
     • A) WITH SPACES - ( . . . ) OR B) WITHOUT SPACES - (...)
       • Depends on style guide (don't forget punctuation either side too)
     • Square brackets around the ellipses
       • - less commonly used but when quoting text that already has ellipses, you could add the brackets to show distinction from original text
   • 2) IN DIALOGUE
     • used to indicate a pause in speech or at the end of dialogue to show someone trailing off
       • Ellipses in dialogue are rarely followed by any other punctuation

8. 8) PARENTHESES

   • PUNCTUATION INSIDE OR OUTSIDE?
     • 3) if sentence & parentheses ends with ABBREVIATION - add a full stop outside!
     • 2) if EXCLAMATION MARK or QUESTION MARK appears inside the parentheses then no full stop is needed
     • 1) FULL STOPS - only go inside when its a full sentence inside the parentheses

9. 9) VERTICAL LISTS - (numbered or bullet pointed lists)

   • 1) FULL SENTENCES
     • Standard terminal punctuation & capitals needed
   • 2) SINGLE WORDS & SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
     • Rules are loose. Single words - no end punctuation needed. Fragments - preference, check style guide
   • 3) MIX OF FULL SENTENCES & FRAGMENTS
     • Standard terminal punctuation & capitals needed.
   • INCORRECT TO USE COLONS & SEMI COLONS