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- 1What are Hofstede's 5 Dimensions?1. Power Distance
2. Uncertainty Avoidance
3. Individualism/Collectivism
4. Masculinity/Femininity
5. Long-term/Short-term Orientation - 2What is a high context culture?A culture in which meaning is exchanged with relatively few words
- 3What is ethnocentrism?The technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is at the centre of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it
- 4What is negative stereotyping?Reiterating a binaristic contrast as a negative group difference, e.g. over-generalising a particular behaviour to apply to an entire group due to misunderstanding the culture of one individual
- 5What are the two categories of positive stereotyping?Solidarity fallacy and lumping fallacy
- 6What is solidarity fallacy?Falsely combining two groups (one of which you belong to) to establish a perceived common ground
- 7What is lumping fallacy?When someone makes a false grouping of two other groups (to which they do not belong) e.g. grouping all Asians together
- 8What is cross-cultural communication?The research which compares the communication practices of one language/cultural group with another
- 9What is intercultural communication?The study of communication between people from different language or cultural backgrounds
- 10What is an icon?A form in which a likeness between the form and its meaning can be discerned, e.g. nom nom for eating
- 11What is an index?A form that only derives its meaning from its context e.g. personal pronouns
- 12What is a symbol?A form not linked to its context or referent in any way
- 13What is contextual felicity?The aptness of an utterance in expressing a proposition that one could take to be reasonable and relevant in light of the context
- 14What is the cognitive perspective of culture?'How things are processed.' A society's culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members. Culture is not a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behaviour or emotions.
- 15What is the relativist perspective of culture?'How things are created through symbol and meaning.' Cultural meanings are not in individual minds, but rather shared by social actors. Cultural meanings are public meanings encoded in shared symbols, not self-contained private understandings.
- 16What is Ohala's Sound Symbolism?Proposes that the link between sound and meaning is not always arbitrary; assertiveness is associated with a lower pitch while politeness and submission are indicated using a higher pitch
- 17How is intonation a linguistic sign?Intonation is indexical rather than iconic. We derive different meanings from intonation depending on our cultural background.
- 18What is socialisation?The process in which children or other novices transition towards becoming members of a social group. Speakers must not only learn the symbolic forms of language, but also the ability to use them appropriately in the sociocultural context
- 19What is a high-density social network?Mostly non-mobile individuals interacting within a more closed system, e.g. rural villages. These networks tend to have stricter penalties for the violation of accepted linguistic or social practices. Linked to the working class.
- 20What is a low-density social network?More mobile individuals who consequently have many contacts who don't necessarily interact with one another.
- 21What is a Community of Practice?More constructivist than a speech community and is based on three criteria: mutual engagement, a jointly negotiated enterprise and a shared repertoire
- 22What is gesture?An action by which a thought, feeling or intention is given conventional and voluntary expression. They may or may not be shared across cultures; and while they mostly complement spoken language, they can be a sophisticated language of their own.
- 23What are the two categories of gesture or body movements?Gross body movements: related to physical proximity and spatial orientation.
Micro body movements: movement of the head, hand, arm, face (including eye contact and gaze); critical in English for turn-taking - 24What is Grice's Co-Operative Principle?Speakers should follow the natural ebb and flow of conversation, speaking when the conversation implicates their contribution
- 25What is implicature?Understanding what a speaker wants by analysing their utterance, even though this may not match what they actually said
- 26What is opting out of a maxim?Choosing not to answer for one reason or another (which may still clearly indicate their intentions)
- 27What is violating a maxim?Simply not obeying a maxim, which can be intentional or unintentional
- 28What is flouting a maxim?Deliberately failing to observe a maxim with the intent of creating implicature
- 29Why have Grice's Maxims been critiqued as Anglo-centric?Many other cultures do not use the maxims as we do in Western culture. The maxim of manner is valued as being orderly in Western cultures but in some nations such as Vietnam and Japan, it is valued to be implicit and non-assertive. Relevance as a general key factor for successful human communication seems to transcend these cross-cultural critiques.
- 30What is Speech Act Theory?Primarily concerned with understanding the intentions and conventions linked to an utterance and what this utterance can do
- 31What are the five types of speech acts?o Assertives: acts that commit the speaker to the truth of the proposition
o Directives: attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something
o Commissives: acts that commit the speaker to a future act
o Expressives: acts in which the speaker makes their feelings about the proposition known to the hearer
o Declaratives: acts that bring about correspondence between the propositional content and reality - 32What is ethnography?The systematic study of people and cultures. The researcher observes the society from the point of view of the subject of study.
- 33What roles can be taken within an utterance?Author: composer of the utterance
Animator: person who speaks it
Principal: person committed to the proposition of the utterance - 34What is the function of code-switching?Using the voice of the 'other' in order to soften the impact of an utterance through obfuscating its intention or truthfulness
- 35What is a cultural schema?A template for shaping thought and behaviour based on human experiences, constructed by culture. They are not equally distributed across members of a group; miscommunication arises when schemas do not align
- 36What is shekasteh-nafsi?A Persian cultural schema of modesty which influences receivers of compliments to downplay the complimented attribute, and pay a compliment in return as well as reassigning the compliment to another person
- 37What is sharmandegi?A Persian cultural schema which encourages speakers to be conscious of the imbalances of daily interactions. They must be conscious of resources that others will expend for them, and acknowledge this by expressing shame.
- 38Why do some Asian cultures ask invasive questions as part of usual small talk?These questions help speakers to position themselves socially, so they know how to address the other person.
- 39What are the Subanun practices of drinking?Tasting (setting up the social rank), close gauge of consumption and retirement of some drinkers, then engagement in drinking games and shorter turns
- 40What is an Illocutionary Force Indicating Device?The linguistic and non-linguistic devices we may use to mitigate the force of a particular utterance e.g. blurring request with ability, omitting pronouns, passive tense
- 41What was the First Wave of Politeness research?Crafted theories and maxims that were clear, powerful and had comparative value; abstracted away from everyday existence. Researchers could quickly and easily collect thousands of instances of a speech act to compare and contrast across cultures.
- 42What was the Second Wave of Politeness research?More context and discourse driven observation. Studies were less comparable, but still powerful; ideas could be extracted but still closely tied to human experience. Acknowledged that speech acts could not always be reduced to one utterance, rather these take place over several lines.
- 43What is 'face' according to Brown & Levinson?Face is the perception of being embarrassed or humiliated. It refers to the desire that all people have to maintain and defend their own self-image. Face can be lost, maintained or enhanced.
- 44What is positive face?The positive consistent self-image or personality (including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants
- 45What is negative face?The basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction - freedom of action and freedom from imposition
- 46What are Face Threatening Acts?Brown & Levinson suggest that some acts are intrinsically threatening to face and require softening. Language users develop politeness strategies to reduce the face loss that may result from a face-threatening action (to the hearer or speaker)
- 47What are some examples of acts threatening to a hearer?To their negative face: ordering, advising, threatening, warning.
To their positive face: complaining, criticising, disagreeing or raising taboo topics - 48What are some examples of acts threatening to a speaker?To their negative face: accepting an offer, accepting thanks
To their positive face: apologising, accepting a compliment, confessing - 49What are Brown & Levinson's 3 factors which influence politeness?• The social Distance between the speaker and the hearer
• The relative Power of the speaker in respect to the hearer
• The absolute Ranking of the imposition in a particular culture - 50What is Goffman's concept of face?Face is a more fluid social concept than posited by Brown & Levinson. Societies must mobilise their members as self-regulating participants in social encounters.
- 51What is Wakimae?A Japanese cultural schema that refers to the attention paid to people's interdependence and to the reciprocity of relationships, specifically the discernment of appropriate behaviour based on this.
- 52What were the three alternative perspectives of politeness identified by Fraser?Conversational Maxim View (Grice, Lakoff, Leech)
Social Norm View (assumes politeness is an action congruent with social norms)
Conversational Contract View (speakers have their own set of rights/obligations which influence conversational flow) - 53What is First Order politeness?Encompasses the many ways in which polite behaviour is viewed and enacted by non-specialist individuals operating in communities e.g. common sense notions of politeness
- 54What is Second Order politeness?The theorisation of politeness by researchers; and the theoretical observations about the norms and balance between participants in a given interaction. Also known as politic.
- 55What were Lakoff's Two Rules of Pragmatic Competence?Be Clear & Be Polite.
- 56What are redress strategies?Strategies employed when the weight of the imposition is perceived to be face threatening.
- 57What are some criticisms of Brown & Levinson's politeness theory?- Not all interaction consists entirely of FTAs
- Violation of face can be important for positive face in some cultures
- Does not take into account issues of respect and deference
- Focus on individual rather than social group - 58What is Rapport Management?Conceptualisation of language and politeness along three dimensions: face, social rights/obligations and interactional goals. Also examines the necessity and frequency of specific speech acts relative to a particular culture, and linguistic resources available to achieve these acts.
- 59What are cultural scripts?Wierzbicka's technique for articulating cultural norms, values and practices using natural semantic metalanguage.
- 60What is interlanguage pragmatics?The field which seeks to understand the extent to which users of a second or subsequent language transfer pragmatic features of their L1, or fail to comprehend features of new languages
- 61What are the two types of modality markers?Downgraders: (e.g. please, will you) play down the impact that the speaker’s utterance is likely to have on the hearer
Upgraders: (e.g. absolutely, really, certainly) increase the force or impact that an utterance is likely to have on the addressee - 62What is a Discourse Completion Test?Typically presents participants with hypothetical situations and asks how they would respond. Can be a written questionnaire, spoken interview, role play or listening exercise.
- 63What are some criticisms of DCTs?Data is collected through preconceived ideas of social categories/theories. Reveals surface knowledge about how language should be used, rather than how it would be used in a natural context.
- 64What is a low context culture?A culture in which detailed verbal messages are favoured. Individuals share less background information/intimate information about one another and thus rely less on non-verbal contextual cues. Messages in these cultures tend to be direct and verbose, and these cultures value people who speak their mind.
- 65What are two goals of intercultural communication training for stakeholders?1. Intercultural communication competence: effectiveness and appropriateness in intercultural situations
2. Cultural intelligence: one’s ability to adapt to new cultural environments. Social and emotional intelligence in one’s home country does not necessarily translate into cultural intelligence. - 66What are some of the differences between Hofstede and Hall's models of understanding cultures?Hofstede’s model provides good general guidelines on cultural difference, and how meaning emerges across discourse. Hall’s model is better for understanding speech acts in a focussed, discourse completion task way (directness/indirectness).
- 67What is intertextuality?The relational orientation of a text to other texts. This includes any piece of text, including: reported speech, discourse markers and public words. This provides a framework for shared experience and conversational collaboration.
- 68What is intersubjectivity?The relationship between one person's understanding/views/opinions of the world, and another person's. This often emerges in practice and can be observed in unfolding conversation.
- 69What is Conversation Analysis?An approach pioneered by Sacks, Schlegoff and Jefferson which seeks to shed light on the common-sense knowledge members of a culture share about social order and how interactions should proceed. Conversation is not just an attempt to share messages but to orientate towards meaningful communication.
- 70What are adjacency pairs?Structures which essentially link two turns by different speakers which are relevant to one another. They are adjacent, produced by different speakers, ordered as a first pair part and a second pair part, and structured so that a particular first part will require a particular second part (preferred response)
- 71What is turn-taking?A local management system which dictates the turn-by-turn basis of conversation. It functions as a sharing device or economy operating over a scarce resource; control of the floor.
- 72What is back-channeling?How we engage with the speaker without taking over the floor. This includes things like 'mmm,' 'uh-huh,' completing the sentence and nodding.
- 73What are the three components of closing sequences identified by Clark & French?Topic termination: parties agree they have nothing more to add
Leave-Taking: summary of contact, justification for ending contact, expression of pleasure about contact, plan future contact
Contact termination: hanging up - 74What is Style?Style is a way of doing something - in this context, speaking. It can be used to align ourselves with certain groups, even if we don't necessarily belong. Style is how we position our identity within concepts of self and other.
- 75What are ideologies?The ideas with which participants and observers frame their understanding of linguistic varieties and map these onto significant people, events and activities. These explicitly come to bear on our practices and use/interpretation of linguistic signs.
- 76What is Self-Categorisation Theory?Self-categorisation theory assumes that self categories are constructed on the spot as a function of a creative interaction between the perceiver’s motives, expectations, background knowledge and theories.
- 77What is social identity?Gives salience to perceived similarities between oneself and others within a group, in comparison with other groups. An assertion of 'us' as opposed to 'them.'
- 78What is personal identity?A self-definition that gives salience to the perceived differences between oneself and the other people in a group. It suggests a perception of the self as 'me' and others in the group as 'not me,' and a categorisation in which intragroup differences are more significant than intergroup differences.
- 79What are the four steps of negative stereotyping?1. Contrast two cultures on basis of a single dimension
2. Focus on artificial/ideological differences as problematic for communication
3. Assign positive value to one strategy/group and negative value to the other
4. Regeneralise process to entire group - 80What is Simpatia?Permanent personal quality in the Chilean context where an individual is perceived as likeable, attractive, fun to be around and easy going. They behave with dignity and respect towards others and strive for harmony in interpersonal relationships.
- 81What are the two prevailing views on gender?• Separate worlds hypothesis (different childhood play and foci)
• Cultural difference driven by an ethnographic understanding of how play and practice differs (the enactment of gender is nuanced and differs from culture to culture, minority adapts to the majority)
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