For Edward Tylor cultures are
systems of human behavior and
thought, obey natural laws, so
they can be studied scientifically
Enculturation
Culture Is Learned
Human cultural learning
depends on the uniquely
developed human capacity to
use symbols.
Symbols: Signs that have no
necessary or natural connection
with the things for which they
stand.
Culture Is Symbolic
Symbolic thought is unique and
crucial to cultural learning.
Association between
symbols and
symbolized is arbitrary
and conventional.
Culture Is Shared
Culture is located in and
transmitted through
groups.
Shared beliefs, values,
memories, and expectations
link people who grow up in
the same culture.
Culture and Nature
Culture takes natural biological urges
and teaches us to express them in
particular ways.
Culture Is All-Encompassing
Anthropology: culture includes features
sometimes regarded as trivial or
unworthy of serious study.
Culture Is Intigrated
Cultures are integrated, patterned
system, if one part changes, other
parts change.
Core Values
Culture Can Be Adaptive
and Maladaptive
Humans have biological and cultural
ways of coping with environmental
stress, what’s good for an individual
isn’t necessarily good for the group.
Universality, Generality
and Particularity
1. Individuals vary in emotional and intellectual
tendencies and capacities. 2. All human populations
have equivalent capacities for culture. 3. People can
learn any cultural tradition.
Universal: exists in every culture.
Biological
Pysichological
Generality: exists in some but not all societies.
Diffusion
Colonization
Invention
Particularity: distinctive or unique culture
trait, pattern, or integration
Culture and the
Individual: Agency
and Practise
Generations of anthropologists
theorized about the relationship
between “system” and “individual”
Levels of Culture
National Culture
Cultural features shared by citizens of the same nation.
International Culture
Cultural traditions that extend beyond national boundaries.
Subcultures
Identifiable cultural patterns existing within a larger culture.
Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism
and Human Rights
Ethnocentrism
Tendency to view one’s own culture as
superior and to use one’s own standards
and values in judging outsiders.
Cultural relativism
To know another culture requires full
understanding of its members’ beliefs
and motivations
Human rights
Rights based on justice and morality
beyond and superior to particular
countries, cultures, and religions.
Mechanisms of Cultural Change
Diffusion
Acculturation
Independent invention
Globalization
Series of processes that
work to make modern
nations and people
increasingly interlinked and
mutually dependent
Economic and political forces
Long-distance communication
Local people must increasingly cope with forces generated by progressively larger systems