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- 1Intelligence is multifaceted: Can be express in lots of ways Is functional: Can solve problems or accomplish a taskDefined and shaped by culture
Cognitive skills and knowledge - 2Intelligence Testing! Psychometric approach:Test to measure a persons cognitive level in relative to other in population
- 3MA =Metal age Measures intellectual development in children.CA = Chronological age
Actual age in years - 4IQ Intelligence QuotientIQ = (MA/CA) x 100
- 5Wechsler Scales: Measures verbal intelligence and non-verbal intelligenceModern IQ =
Bell Shaped:
Frequency Distribution - 6Intellectually impaired = if IQ less that 70-Defects in more than one domain
-May be Genetic: Down Syndrome
-May be Biological
-May be environmental
(Foetal Alcohol Syndrome) - 7Creativity: Reflects academic, musical ,social ,athletic ability Often IQ over 130Creativity:Ability to reproduce outcomes in a novel way.
May be measured through "divergent thinking" Generate multiple possibilities in a given situation. - 8Validity: reflects a tests ability to asses the contract it was designed to measure. -IQ predict school performanceReliability: Reflects ability to produce consistent results.
-Test that are highly reliable, test best in childhood - 9IQ Tests Negative Aspects: -Focus on cognitive and ignore creative and practical working memory-Culturally bias
-Based on White Western Middle Class
Culture always has some influence!
Intelligent tests need to consider culture! - 10Approaches to Intelligence:-Psychometric
-Information Processing
-Contemporary approaches - 11Psychometric: Identifies groups of items that correlate highly with each other to find skills or abilities!G:General Intelligence
S: Specific Intelligence
Theory splits into two
Gf-Gc - 121.Fludi intelligence -Fugureing out different elements (declines with age)2.Crystallised Intelligence:
-General knowledge
(increases with age) - 13Information-processing Approach: -examines processes that underline intelligent behaviour-Speed of processing: quick brain
-Knowledge Base: information stored long term
-Ability to acquire and apply mental processes: Learn to memorize - 14Contemporary Approaches: Overlap to form 1 contemporary Intelligence! -Creative intelligence: coping with novel situations and learning new responses.-Practical intelligence: judging most effective approach in the given content
-Analytical intelligence: ability to put together the mental components needed when problem solving. - 15Individual Differences -Intelligence comes from some genetic! -Also upbringing plays a part!Group Differences
-Aboriginals score low on IQ tests
-Disadvantaged: poverty, bad education
They learn in different styles to Western - 16Motivation: Driving force behind behaviour leads us to pursue things and avoid others!Motive reflect:
-Biological Needs
-Psychosocial Needs - 17Psychodynamic Perspective: -Emphasises biological basis of motivation reflective animal heritage. -Freud Argued that e are motivated by internal tension drive that build up.-two basic drives "SEX"(love, lust, intimacy) and "AGGRESSION" (control, mastery)
-Psychodynamic theorist argue for:
Need for relatedness to others and a
Need for self-esteem - 18Unconscious Motivation: -Freud argued that we can be un aware of own motives.Motivation can be:
-Unconscious (implicit)
-Conscious (explicit)
At the same time! - 19Unconscious Motivations: Can be tested using projective tests in which a person is asked to describe a vague stimulusThematic Apperception Test
-Motives coded in pictures.
-Highly predictive of long term behaviour.
Can be subject, different people read different points of view! - 20Behaviourists Perspective: -governed by the environment, study the real things people do -Needs reflect requirement's such as food and water-Drives are states of arousal that accompany an unfulfilled need (Hunger, Thirst)
-Drives can be primary (food) or secondary (learned)
-Drive states can be driven by reward
-Drive reducation - 21Cognitive Perceptive: -Expectancy-value theory: Motivation of the value people place on an outcome and weather they can achieve it or not (Is it achievable/ or out reach)-Outcomes are viewed as goals which are established through social learning.
(influenced by other)
-Conscious goals regulate human behaviour
(reflect on what the think they can achieve) - 22Intrinsic motivation: The enjoyment on an interest in a behaviour for its own sake. (you play piano because you like it)Entrinisic Motivation:
Rewards and punishment actually make you like things less, not to better.
(under minds persons enjoyment) - 23Self determination Theory There are 3 innate needs: -Competence -Autonomy (choose what you want) -Relatedness-Born with these there innate needs
-Fulfilment increase intrinsic motivation - 24Humanistic Perspective -Maslows Hierachy of needs -Lower level need must be fulfilled first -Need basic needs meet to become you best!
- 25Evolutionary Perspective: -Early theorist suggested behaviour was governed by "Instincts": Fixed patterns of behaviour produced with learning.Key assumption is that motivational systems serve functions that my have evolved independently in response to particular evolutionary processes!
- 26-Contemporary Theorist argue that there are multiple motivational systems that relate to:-Survival
-Reproduction - 27Eating -Ingestion of food leads to sequence of metabolical events:Absoptive Phase- food ingested, energy extracted and stored as glycogen or fat
Fasting Phase- glycogen in converted to glucose - 28Homeostasis -Maintain constancy of internal environment -Eating is part of complex homeostatic process with...Set points: Biological optimal level system tries to maintain.
Feedback mechanisms: e.g. receptors to monitor level of sugar in blood.
Corrective mechanisms: these restore system back t set point when needed. - 29What turn hunger on? -dropping level of glucose and lipids and..Lateral Hypothalamus: plays role in switching "on" eating
Ventromedial Hypothalamus: plays role in switching "off" eating - 30Sexual Response Cycle: -woman's sensation variations are many -Males have a typical male sexual response cycle-once orgasm has been reached hard to build up again without a rest
-Males and Females describe same sexual experience cant tell apart. - 31Sexual Orientation:sexual orientation in the enduring direction of attraction for sexual partner Homosexuality: attraction or preference for the same sex-Twin studies show a biological basis for homosexuality
-Woman more likely to go both ways, men chose one side
-Studies are showing that it is heretically passed down through genes - 32(non-sexual) Psychosocial Motives -personal and interpersonal motives(e.g. achievement, intimacy) -Less biological but rooted in evolutionTwo major clusters of goal people purse:
-relatedness
-Agency: motive for mastery - 33Relatedness: -attachment motivation: desire for physical and psychological proximity to another.. Intimacy: closeness characterized by self-disclosure, warmth and mutual caring.Affiliation is:
Interaction with friend or acquaintances
(everyone is different, some need only a few close friends, some like heaps of friends life of party) - 34Achievement Motivation -refers to the need to do well, to succeed and to avoid failure - person who have high level of need for achievement tend to:-choose moderately difficult task
-enjoy being challenged
-avoid failure
-work more persistently
-enjoy success - 35Performance Goal are: -motives to achieve a particular outcomePerformance-approach: Motivated to attain goal
Performance-avoidance: motivated by fear of not attaining goal - 36Mastery Goals are: motives to increase competence, mastery of a skill.All Goals predict different outcomes.
- 37Emotion: is an evaluative response to a situation that typically includes Can be positive or negative feeling responcePhysiological arousal (frightened by tiger)
Subjective experience(love feel different to hate)
Behavioural or emotional expressions - 38Theories of emotion:James Lang dog bark=run=emotion Th stimulus leads to a peripheral nervous system response which in turn is interpreted as an emotion.Theories of emotion:Cannon-Bard
dog bark=both run and emotion at same time
The stimulus produces simultaneous peripheral responses and subjective experiences. - 39Subjective Experience: -Emotional intensity varies along a bell curve -Woman are more in tune with emotional understanding.At the upper of the bell curve are people with serve personality disorders (up and down)
At the lower of the bell curve are people who appear not to have emotional states (Alexithym: not aware of emotional state) - 40Feeling Happy: Happiness is related to cultural values (highest in individualistic cultures/lowest in collective cultures)Happiness is NOT related to
Gender, Age, Wealth
(within a developed nation) - 41Facial Expression -There is evolutionary link between the experiences of emotion and facial expression of emotions.Different facial expressions are associated with different emotions!
Facial expressions can alter emotional expression!
(smile make you feel happier) - 42Culture and Facial Expression -cross-cultural studies have identified 6 facial expressions that all cultures can identify. Surprise:Fear:Anger:Disgust Happiness:sadneesThere are 5 common basic state:
Anger,Fear,Happiness,Sadness,Disgust
Additional states are:
Surprise,Contempt,Shame,Guilt,Joy,
Trust,Interest,Anticipation - 43Neurophychological of Emotion: Hypothalamus-link in circuit that convert emotional signal into autonomic and endocrine responsesLimbic System-plays central role in linking sensory stimuli with feeling
Cortex-decided weather stimulus is safe or not, interpretation of meaning of perpheral responses and regulating facial expression - 44Schachter-Singer Theory -emotion involves two factors 1. Physiological arousal 2.Cognitive interperationHe argues that a cognitive judgment or attribution is crucial to emotional experience
- 45Emotion is a psychological feeling that you that you think about 'why', which then produces emotion later!Observing the body to understand the feeling then why.
Think about environment and what is causing this feeling. - 46Motivation is the force that energizes behavior and includes two components: What people want to do and how strongly they want it. (Different theories e.g. evoultionary, cognitive. suggest different reasons for motives)Emotion is an evaluative response that typically involves subjective experience, physiological arousal and behavioral expressions.
- 47Personality: refers to enduring pattern of thought. feeling, motivation and behavior that is expressed in different circumstancesAim of personality research:
-construct general theories that describe structures of personality
-Asses individual differences in personality
(the way people vary) - 48Personality is about individual diffrencesTry to understand the way people vary
- 49Psychodynamic views of personality: Freud emphasized the role of unconscious processes in the control of behaviour.Topographic model: suggest 3 level of consciousness
-conflict occurs between the different aspects of consciousness (opposing motives)
-Successful resolution of conflict requires compromise formation - 50Topographical Model: Psychodynamic InteractionConscious: everyday thoughts
Precociousness: This that can be thought of but wont if we don't think of them
Unconscious: Cant asses, wishes, fears can be threatening to self, to scary to be conscious (may drive a lot of our choices) - 51Freud's Drive (instinct) Motives -based on Darwin's work, he suggested human behavior is motivated by two drives (or instincts)Aggression Drive
Sexual (Libido Drive)
-Libido refers to pleasure seeking, sensuality and love, as well as desire for intercourse. - 52Libido follows developmental course during childhood:-Stages of psycho-sexual development
-Fixed progression of change from stage to stage
-Notion of fixation at a particular libidinal stage - 53Libido Stages: Oral:0-18 months :Dependency Anal:2-3 years:Orderliness,control,compliance Phallic:4-6:Identification with same sex Latency:7-11 :Sublimation of sexual and aggression impulses Genital:12+:Mature sexuality and realtionships-Reflect the child's evolving quest for pleasure and growing realization of the social limitations on the quest.
- 54Freud's Structural Model of Personality: -Conflict seen as being between three "forces" Id and superego at opposite ends 'Ego" brings the two togetherId:reservoir of sexual and aggressive energy,unconscious and driven by impulses
Superego: counter balance Id, source of conscious and idea's
Ego:Must balance Id and superego, obeys reality princible - 55Conflict among various forces lead to a compromise forged by Ego. This is all below conscious awareness then becomes conscious.Super ego (Behave normal)
>
=Ego(Justify's in on moral grounds)
>
Id (hurt associate) - 56Deference Mechanisms Unconscious mental process that protect a conscious person from unpleasant emotions. Traumatic event are better remembered!Repressions: anxiety-evoking thoughts are kept unconscious
Denial: person refuses to recognize reality
Projection: attribution of own unacceptable impulses to others
Reaction formation: person converts and unacceptable impulse into the opposite impulse - 57Sublimation: person converts an unacceptable impulse into a socially acceptable activity Rationalization: person explains away actions to reduce anxiety Displacement: person direct their emotions away from the real target to a substituteRegression: person reverts back to an earlier stage of psycho-sexual development
Passive aggression: and indirect expression of anger towards others - 58Assessing Unconscious PatternsGiven that the core assumption that many personality processes are unconscious how can these be assessed?
- 59Life History Methods: understand the person in context to life experience.Protective Tests: present with vague stimulus will the 'project' their own impules and desires into the descriptions.
e.g.Rorschach inkblot test
e.g.TAT create story that reflect them - 60Cognitive-social "Personality" Theory -cognitive-social theory places emphasis on learned aspects of personality as well as expectations and beliefs of the person-person must encode the situation as relevant
-situation must have personal meaning
-Person must believe in their ability to carry out behavior
-Personal constructs are mental representations of significant people, places and things. - 61Cognitive-social theories -weather people carry out an actions depends on expectancy and competencies: Behavior-outcome expectencies: belief that a behavior will lead to an outcomeSelf-efficacy expectancies: belief that the person can perform that behavior
Competence: skills used for problem-solving
Self-regulation: setting goals, evaluating performance and responding to feedback
(Some people have high self-efficacy e.g good cook)
(Depressed person more accurate at self evaluation) - 62Trait Theories of Personality Trait: refers to emotional, cognitive and behavioral tendencies that construct underlying personality dimensions on which individuals can vary.Traits can be measured by asking the self or another to rate the self (usually pretty much the same)
How many traits are required?
-Allport noted some 18000 traits
-Cattell argued for 16 distinct traits - 63Five Factor Model Neuroticism, Extroversion, Agreeableness, conscientiousness, Openess-There are always 5 no matter country or culture
-Only true if you american and translate
-If you take from native they are not the same
-They can be a bit surface level
-Neuroticism high chance of depression - 64Is Peronsality Consistent? -consistency across situations: Mischel argues that situational variables largely determine behaviourPrinciple of aggregation: The consistency of a class of behaviors over a range of situations is better than Mischel may have recognized
Person-by-situations: People influence (choose) and are influenced by the situations the find, and this may give a false appearance of power to the situations - 65Humanistic Theories Humanistic personality theories reject the behaviorists and psychodynamic notions of personality.-Humanistic emphasis the notion that each person has a potential for creative growth
-The intent is to assist people in developing to their maximum potential - 66Roger Peron-Centered Approach -Human beings are good by nature but personality becomes distorted by interpersonal experiences: phenomenal experienceEach person has multiple selves:
True self: core aspect of being, untainted False self:the self that is created by distortions from interpersonal experiences, conditions of worth
Ideal self: what the person would like to be - 67Existential Approaches -Existential: people have no fixes nature and must create themselves. (people control through religious/culture they have a legacy will live on. protecting themselves)Existential dread: ultimately we all face death, of ourselves and of our loved ones
(to avoid anxiety over this, cultural values and beliefs symbolically deny death and allow hope in the face of mortality
(can construct ourselves and live any reality) - 68Genetics and Personality -Heritability: refers to the proportion of variance in a particular trait that is due to genetic influences.-supporting evidence for heritability has come from twin studies.
-Data suggests that most personality variables are 15-50% heritable.
-Temperament most highly genetic trait passed on
-Different levels of heritability - 69Personality and Culture -Freud viewed cultural phenomena as reflections of individual psychodynamics -The interactionist approach suggest that personality, economics and culture influence one another-The culture pattern approach sees culture as an organised set of beliefs, rituals and institutions that shape individuals to fit its pattern.
- 70Developmental Psychology -focus of developmental psychology is on how human develop and change over time-human development characterized by (critical periods)
-change occurs over whole life span - 71Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal Design -cross-sectional designs compare groups of different ages at same time-useful for assessing age difference -not useful age change as each group (cohort) has different life experiences.Longitudinal Method compares same group at multiple time periods
-Problematic when you want to asses age changes over a long period of time
-takes a long time/also biased as same group - 72Sequential Designs -sequential studies examine differnt age groups at lutiple time periods (reduce cohort effects) -Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal -Experience makes a differnceCohort:
Collection of individuals all at same age, group of individuals all experiencing things at the same time. - 73Physical Development - Prenatal Babies hear well in womb, prefer the sounds of mother voice. Germinal Period: the fertilized egg (zygote) enters a 2 week period of rapid cell divisionEmbryonic period: the developing human organism (embryo) from 2 weeks through to 2nd month (most sensitive period)
Fetal Period: the developing human organism (fetus) from 9 weeks after conception to birth - 74Environmental Influences - Teratogens -Teratogens are environmental agents that harm the embryo or fetus! -Including drugs, radiation, viruses, chemicalsFetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS):
-occurs when the fetus is exposed to alcohol and can result in physical and mental disabilities
Rubella: can lead to deafness and mental retardation - 75Infant Development -reflexes are innate motor responses elicited by critical stimuli and are adaptive. Examples of infant reflexes:-Rooting reflex: a touch on the cheek induces the infant to move its mouth toward the source of touch (helps feeding)
-Sucking reflex: Tactile stimulation f the mouth produces rhythmic sucking - 76Motor Milestones in Infants Similar in all cultures lifts chin - sits alone - stand with support -crawling - walks with support - stand alone - walks alone-relative time frame each culture a little different
-western child's neck muscles build slower as we protect them more
-not a strong relationship between this development and how smart they will be later on. - 77Puberty -the development stage during which individuals become physcially cabable of reprodication-Girls experience menarche (period) around ages 11 to 13 years
-Boys being to produce mature sperm at about 14.5 years (boys mature later) - 78Beyond Adolescence -physical growth is mostly complete by the end of adolescence -ageing is often associated with a decline of physical ability-muscle and sensory function peaks at 20-30 and then declines
-woman experience menopause around 51 years of age - 79Cognitive Development - Infant Perception -Orienting reflex: the tendency to pay greater attention to novel stimuli that to familiar stimuli, longer fixation times occur with novel stimuli, infants can form basic-level categories for animals by 10 months-Sucking reflex: infants can be trained to suck a pacifier. sucking rate increase with novel stimuli ad decreases to familiar stimuli.
-brain waves differ between novel and familiar! - 80Infant Sensory Capacities -infants respond with changes in heart rate to loud sounds (even in the womb) hearing is well developed at birth-infant visual perception is poor at birth, nut improves to 20/100 by age 6 months, focusing best on objects 18-20 cm away
-Intermodal processing is present at birth e.g. infant turns eyes toward sounds - 81What can infants remember? -infant amnesia (lack of explicit memory for event before the age of 3 or 4 years) is typical in infants.Various forms of implicit memory are present from birth:
-Relationship between movement and it consequences
-Faster response to a previously seen stimuli - 82Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory -cognition refers to mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating-Most earlier theorists simply assumed that children knew less than adults. Piaget was the first theorist to suggest that children knew different from adults
- 83Assimilation and Accommodation -cognitive schemas (concepts) developed by children must be able to handle new information and situations via:Assimilation: taking in new information and incorporating in into existing schemas.
Accommodation: adjusting current schema to meet new information
(Driving force behind cognitive development is equilibration- the balancing of these two processes - 84Piaget's Stages of Cognitive development Stage Age CharacteristicsSensorimotor 0-2 sensory,egocentric
Preoperational 2-7 Symbolic thought
Concrete operational 7-12 mental reasoning
Formal operational 12+ apply logic more abstracly - 85Issues in Cognitive Development Object permanence: the realization that an object continues to exist even if it cant be seen Egocentrism: a cognitive view in which a child understand the world to have only there view (cant see what other see, difficulty in understand other person perspective)-Conservation: understanding that the basic properties of an object are constant even if it changes shape.
- 86Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development -Emphasized that we learn socially as a motivation for cognitive gain and learning.-Zone of proximal development stretched from sole performance to collaborative cooperation.
-children collaborate and strive together to enhance their levels of understanding
-children also learn through observation and imitation of significant others - 87Cognitive Development as: Information Processing Focus on information processes that develop: Processing speed: metal quickness increases as children age Automatatisation: the ability to perform some tasks automaticallyKnowledge Base: children gain knowledge with experience
Cognitive Strategies: more sophisticated cognitive strategies are developed
Metacognition: thinking about thinking - 88Age- Related Changes in Cognition -Psychomotor slowing results in older people requiring more time to process information -Memory changes depend on the type of memory assesses:-short term memory relatively unchanged
-working memory difficulties in complex tasks
-long term memory storage unchanged but retrieval becomes more difficult
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