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memory 1
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- 1Coding, capacity and duration of memoryCoding, capacity and duration of memory
- 2What is the aim of Baddeley's study?To investigate the existence of a phonological loop in STM.
- 3What is the procedure of Baddeley's study?- Participants saw everyday words displayed very quickly one after the other.
- Were then asked to write words seen in serial order( same order as on the list).
Condition 1: the list contained five one-syllable English words e.g. tree, once, pain.
Condition 2: the list contained five polysyllabic (many syllables) English words e.g. university, recommendation, establishment - 4What were the findings of Baddeley's study?From analysing several trials Baddeley found participants recalled the shorter, one-syllable words much better than the polysyllabic words. He called this the word length effect.
- 5What was the conclusion of Baddeley's study?The phonological loop has a role in the capacity of STM. The amount you can hold in your STM is determined by the length of time it takes to say the words NOT the number of items. It seems that the phonological loop holds the amount of information that you can say in 2 seconds.
- 6What was Joseph Jacobs technique to measure digit span?1. Researcher gives for example, 4 digits and then participant is asked to recall these digits in the correct order out loud.
2. If this is correct the researcher reads out 5 digits and so on, until the researcher cannot recall the order correct.
3. This determines the individuals digit span.
4. Jacobs found the mean span for all digits across all participants was 9.3 items. The mean span for letters was 7.3. - 7What did George Miller do?Made observations of everyday practice.
He noted that things come in sevens: there are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins etc. - 8Describe what George Miller found out.His work suggests that the span or capacity of STM is about 7 items plus or minus 2. However, Miller also noted that people can recall 5 words as well as they can recall 5 letters. They do this by chunking - grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks.
- 9Duration of STM: What did Margaret and Lloyd Peterson do?1. Tested 24 undergraduate students.
2. Each student took part in eight trials: trial = one test.
3. Each trial student was given a consonant syllable (also known as trigram e.g. YCG) to remember - also given a 3 digit number.
4. Student asked to count backwards from that 3 digit number until told to stop.
5. Counting backwards was to prevent mental rehearsal of the consonant syllable - increase students memory for the consonant syllable. - 10Duration of STM: What did Margaret and Lloyd Peterson do?6. Each trial told to stop after a different amount of time - 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds - called retention interval.
7. Suggests that STM may have a very short duration indeed, unless we repeat something over and over again (i.e. verbal rehearsal.) - 11Duration of LTM: What did Harry Bahrick and collegues (1975)?1. Studied 392 students from the American state of Ohio who were aged between 17 and 74.
2. High school yearbooks obtained from participants or directly from some schools.
3. Recall tested in various ways: (1) photo-recognition test consisting of 50 photos, some from participants high school yearbook; (2) free recall test where participants recalled all the names of their graduating class. - 12Duration of LTM: What did Harry Bahrick and collegues (1975)?4. Participants tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo recognition.
5. After 48 years, recall declined to 70% for photo recognition.
6. Free recall was less good then recognition.
7. After 15 years this was about 60% accurate, dropping to 30% after 48 years.
Shows LTM can last a very long time indeed. - 13Describe a weakness of Baddeleys studyUsed quite artificial stimuli rather than meaningful material. Word lists had no personal meaning to participants. Means we should be cautious about generalising the findings to different kinds of memory task. For example, when processing more meaningful information, people may use semantic coding even for STM tasks.
This suggests that the findings from this study have limited application. - 14Describe a weakness of Jacobs study.It was conducted a long time ago. Early research in psychology often lacked adequate control. For example, some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested so they didn't perform as well as they might. Would mean the results might not be valid because confounding variables were not controlled.
However, results of this study has been confirmed by other research; supporting validity. - 15Describe a weakness of Miller's research.He may have overestimated the capacity of STM. For example, Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded capacity of STM was only about four chunks.
Suggests lower end of Miller's estimate (five items) is more appropriate then seven items. - 16Describe a limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study.Stimulus material is artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities where what we are trying to remember is meaningful; lacks external validity. However, we do sometimes try to remember meaningless things such as phone numbers: study is totally irrelevant.
- 17Describe a strength of Bahrick et al.'s study.It has higher external validity. Real-life meaningful memories studied. When studies on LTM have been conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates lower - Shepard 1967.
- 18Describe a weakness of Bahrick et al.'s study.Downside of real life research is confounding variables are not controlled. Bahrick's participants may have looked at their yearbook photos and rehearsed their memory over the years.
- 19Picture of multi-store memory modelXXX
- 20Description of sensory register.Stimulus from the environment (sound of someone's name) passes into sensory registers along with other sights, sounds, smells etc. This part of memory is not one store but several. Two main stores are iconic (visual information coded visually) and echoic memory (sound or auditory coded acoustically.)
- 21Description of sensory register.Material in sensory registers lasts only very briefly - duration less then half a second. Sensory registers have high capacity. Very little of what goes into sensory register passes further into the memory system - it will if you pay attention to it. Key process is attention.
- 22What is short-term memory? (STM)*Limited capacity store because it can only contain a certain number of 'things' before forgetting takes place.
*Capacity of STM on average is between 5 and 9 items of information (magic number 7+_ 2') - research suggests it might be more 5 rather than 9.
*It is coded acoustically and lasts about 30 seconds unless rehearsed. - 23When does maintenance rehearsal occur?It occurs when we rehearse material to ourselves over and over again. We can keep the information in our STM's as long as we rehearse it, if we rehearse it long enough, it passes into LTM.
- 24What is long-term memory?*Potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time.
*Psychologists believe capacity is unlimited and can last many years.
*LTM's tend to be coded semantically.
*Although this material is stored in LTM, when we want to recall it, it has to be transferred back into STM by a process retrieval.
*According to MSM, this is true of all our memories; none of them are recalled directly from LTM. - 25Describe a strength of the Multi-store model.It is supported by research studies that show that STM and LTM are indeed qualitatively different. For example, Baddeley found that we tend to mix up words that sound similar when we are using our STM's; we mix up words that have similar meanings when we use our LTM'S. It clearly shows coding in STM is acoustic and in LTM semantic. This shows they are different which supports the MSM's view that these two memory stores are separate and independent. Further support is given by all the studies of coding, capacity and duration.
- 26Describe a limitation of the Multi-store model.According to MSM, what matters in rehearsal is the amount of it that you do. The more you rehearse some information, the more likely you are to transfer it to LTM and remember it for a long time. However, Craik and Watkins (1973) found that this prediction is wrong. What matters about rehearsal is the type; they discovered two types of rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal is the type described in MSM, but it does not transfer information into LTM. Just maintains it in STM. Elaborative rehearsal is needed for long-term storage; occurs when you link the information to your existing knowledge, or you think about what it means. This is a very serious limitation of the MSM because it is another research finding finding that cannot be explained by the model.
- 27Who was one of the first cognitive psychologists to realise that the multi-store model's view of LTM was too simplistic and flexible?Endel Tulving (1985).
- 28What did Tulving propose?There are three LTM stores; episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.
- 29What is episodic memory?*Refers to our ability to recall events from our lives.
*Compared to a diary, record of daily happenings.
*These memories are much more complex; they are time-stamped (remember when they happened - recently or last week or this morning)
*Your memory of a single episode will include several elements e.g. people and places, objects and behaviours, all interwoven to produce a single memory.
*You have to make a conscious effort to recall episodic memories. You may be able to do so quickly, but you are still aware that you are searching for your memory of what happened when you went to the dentist. - 30What is semantic memory?*Contains knowledge of the world.
*Includes facts, but in the broadest possible sense.
*It is compared to an encyclopedia and dictionary.
*Would include knowledge of such things such as applying to university, taste of an orange, what zombies like for dinner and the meaning of words.
*Contains an impressive number of concepts such as 'animals.'
*These memories are not 'time-stamped'
*Less personal and more about facts we all share.
*About much more then facts; contains immense collection of material. - 31Describe a strength of Tulving's propostion that there are three memory store for LTM.Famous case studies of Henry Molaison and Clive Wearing are relevant here. Episodic memory in both men severely impaired as consequence of amnesia. Great difficulty recalling past events. But semantic memories were relatively unaffected e.g. still understood meaning of words. So Henry Molaison would not be able to recall stroking a dog half an hour earlier and could not remember having owned a dog in the past; however, would not need concept of a 'dog' explained to him repeatedly. Procedural memories were also intact; both knew how to tie shoelaces, how to walk and speak and in CW's case how to read music, sing and play piano.
*Evidence supports Tulving's view there are different memory stores in LTM. One store can be damaged but the others unaffected. Clear evidence these types of memory are different and are stored in different parts of the brain. - 32Describe a weakness...*******
- 33What is the working memory model?*An explanation of how one aspect of memory (short-term memory) is organised and how it functions.
*It is concerned with the part of the mind that is active when we are temporarily strong and manipulating information.
*Model consists of four main components, each of which is qualitatively different especially in terms of capacity and coding. - 34What is the central executive?*Essentially an attentional process that monitors incoming data, makes decisions and allocates slave systems to tasks.
*Has very limited processing capacity. - 35What is the phonological loop?*One of the slave systems is the phonological loop.
*Deals with auditory information (coding is acoustic) and preserves the order in which information arrives.
*PL is divided into:
- 1. Phonological store: stores words you hear
- 2. Articulatory process: allows maintenance rehearsal. Capacity of this 'loop' is believed to be two seconds' worth of what you can say. - 36What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?*Second slave system.
*VSS stores visual and/or spatial information when required.
*Has limited capacity which according to Baddeley is about 3/4 objects.
*Logie (1995) subdivided VSS into
- 1. Visual cache: stores visual data.
- 2. Inner scribe: records arrangement of objects in visual field. - 37What is the episodic buffer?*Third slave system.
*Added to the model by Baddeley in 2000.
*Temporary store for information, integrating the visual, spatial, and verbal information processed by other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing - recording events that are happening.
*Can be seen as the storage component of the central executive and has a limited capacity of about four chunks (Baddeley 2012)
*Links WM to LTM and wider cognitive process such as perception. - 38Describe a strength of the WMM.Studies of the dual-task performance support the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad. Baddeley et al. (1975) showed that participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks than doing both a visual and verbal task at the same time. Increased difficulty because both visual tasks compete for same slave system whereas, when doing a verbal and visual task simultaneously, there is no competition.
*This means there must be a separate slave system (VSS) that processes visual input. - 39Describe a weakness of the WMM.There is a lack of clarity over the central executive as cognitive psychologists suggest this component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and does not explain anything. Baddeley recognised this himself when he said: ' The CE is the most important but least understood component of working memory.' The CE needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply 'attention.' For example, some psychologists believe it may consist of separate components. This means the WMM hasn't been fully explained.
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- Fichas sobre memory 1, creado por Millie Carless el 22/03/2018.
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