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Final exam psycho
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- 1What is memory?The ability to retain information over time through three processes: encoding (forming), storing, and retrieving, which are subject to error or bias
- 2What is encoding?Making mental representations of information so that it can be placed into our memories
example: associating a segment (514), to the phone number code of the area of montreal - 3What is storing?The process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall
- 4What is retrieving?The process of getting or recalling information that has been placed into short-term or long-term memory
- 5What are the three types of memory?Sensory, Short-term memory (working memory) and long-term memory
- 6What is sensory memory?An initial process that receives and holds environmental information in its raw form for a brief time
Example: you are walking in the mall and hear a guitarist. You definitely hear it and your memory processes it but unless you pay attention to it, it will disappear without a trace. If you pay attention to it, it will enter your short-term memory. - 7What is short-term memory (working memory)?A process that can hold only a limited amount of information (av. 7 items) for a short period of time (2-30secs)
not enough attention to it, so does not go in LT - 8What is long-term memory?The process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time
- 9What is the process for incoming information?info enters sensory (ie: you hear me) but if you do not pay attention the info does not go in sensory memory.
If you do pay attention to particular information such as words (intonation will not work), it enters STM.
If you do not pay attention to info in STM, it is not encoded and is forgotten (encoding will happen AFTER paying attn’ to info in STM). If you do pay attention and take notes, the info will transfer to LTM
In LTM info is encoded for storage and is there on a relatively permanent basis. - 10What is an example of poor encoding?Poor class notes however can result in poor encoding and then inevitably poor retrieval.
- 11What are the two types of sensory memory?Echoic and Iconic
- 12Iconic memory vs echoic memory?A form of sensory memory that automatically holds VISUAL information for about a quarter of a second or more: as soon as your attention shifts, the informations disappears (ex: blinking)
vs
A form of sensory memory that holds AUDITORY information for 1 or 2 seconds” - 13What are the advantages of sensory memory?- Prevents from being overwhelmed: filters out the info you receive in your environment
- Gives decision time: Let’s you decide whether incoming info should be processed further
- Provides stability, playback, and recognition - 14What are the two limited characteristics of short term memory (working memory)Limited duration: Maintenance or rehearsal refers to the practice of intentionally repeating information so that it remains longer in STM, or else it has a limited duration (2-30 seconds)
Limited capacity:
Interference, which is the main reason for things disappearing, results when new information enters STM and pushes out information that is already there
max 7 items - 15What is the link between short-term memory and the prefrontal cortex?when you are paying attention and using working memory to perform cognitive tasks, maximum neural activity occurs in various areas of prefrontal
- 16What is the story of Rajan Mahadevan with short-term memory?He can recite the first 31,811 digits of pi, he used chunking
- 17What is chunking? in what type of memory is it used? What is its advantage?combining separate items of info into a larger unit, or chunk, and then remember chunks of info rather than individual items
STM
increases the amount of info that one can hold in - 18Why SM is also called working memory?It is an active process, working process
- 19What are three important points in STM?1) Attention
Paying attention transfers info into LTM
Selective
2) Rehearsing
Information disappears unless it is rehearsed
Can hold info for a short time until you decide what to do with it
3) Storing
Helps to store or encode info into LTM
Rajan’s chunking - 20What happens if an info is not encoded?It is forgotten and does not go into LTM
- 21Name 6 ways of making info into LTM?1) Sensory Memory: acknowledge surroundings
2) Attention: pay attention so goes into STM
3) STM: possibility to rehearse info
4) Encoding: encode so it is transmitted into LTM
5) Long-term memory: possibility to remain for lifetime
6) Retrieving: retrieve from LTM only with good encoding - 22What happens if no attention is given to the incoming info?is forgotten at the sensory memory stage
- 23Primacy effect vs Recency effectA better recall, or improvement in retention, of information presented at the beginning of a task (because of rehearsal time)
vs
A better recall, or improvement in retention, of information presented at the end of a task (because of STM) - 24Declarative (the types of info in it also) vs Procedural MemoryMemories for facts or events, such as scenes, stories, words, conversations, faces, or daily events
Semantic: What you learn in class
Episodic: memory for specific events, personal experiences, or activities
vs
Memories for motor skills, some cognitive skills, and emotional behaviours (biking) - 25What is automatic encoding?The transfer of information from short-term into long-term memory without any effort and usually without any awareness
Personal events (episodic information)
Interesting facts (semantic information)
Skills & Habits (procedural information) - 26What is effortful encoding?The transfer of information from short-term into long-term memory either by working hard to repeat or rehearse the information, or especially , by making associations b/t new and old information
Requires concentration and effort
Semantic information (studying) - 27Maintenance rehearsal vs Elaborative rehearsalSimply repeating or rehearsing the information rather than forming any new associations
Usually used for ST, not effective for LTM
vs
Using effort to actively make meaningful associations between new information that you wish to remember and old or familiar information that is already stored in long-term memory - 28What is repression?Happens when the mind pushes a memory of some traumatic event into the unconscious. The memory may be retrieved when something releases it.
- 29What is the debate about repression between therapists and memory researchers?Therapist’s role: the question remains, are these memories accurate or are they suggested by the therapist or something/someone else. Memory researchers believe that it may be the case that clients only wish to believe they were abused in order to explain their current psychological conditions
- 30What is photographic memory?Occurs in adults, is the ability to form sharp, detailed visual images after examining a picture or page for a short period of time and to recall the entire image at a later date, can RECALL
- 31What is eidetic imagery?The ability to examine a picture or page for 10-30 seconds and then hold in one’s mind a detailed visual image of the material, see as an IMAGE
- 32What is flashbulb memory?Vivid recollections, usually in great detail, of dramatic or emotionally charged incidents that are of interest to the person
Encoded effortlessly (not effort needed)
Lasts for long period of time
Involves surprising, emotionally arousing events, or events that have meaning or consequences to you.
Are vivid but not necessarily accurate
Amygdala: secretion of emotional hormones plays an important role in LTM storage. - 33What is recall?Retrieving previously learned information without the aid of or with very few external cues
fill in the blank questions (no cues, what - 34What is recognition?identifying previously learned information with the help of more external cues
example: multiple choice questions - 35What is eyewitness testimony?Recalling or recognizing a suspect observed during a potentially very disruption and distracting emotional situation that may have interfered with accurate remembering.
People can be wrong during eyewitness testimony.
Can be affected by suggestions, misleading questions, and false information. - 36What is network theory of memory organizing?It is how can we possibly store that much information
We store related ideas in separate categories, or files, called NODES.
As we make associations among information, we create links among thousands of nodes - 37What are nodes?A gigantic interconnected network of files for storing and retrieving information
- 38What is Donald Norman's example?- He explained what is a cognitive network
- Researchers have developed a theory of how we search through thousands of nodes to find a particular one
- Remembered a party he had attended at a friend’s, the house had associations with smoke detectors - 39What is a network hierarchy? With the description of the orderThe arrangement of nodes in a certain order or hierarchy
At bottom: nodes with very concrete information that applies only to a specific animal (How big is a guppy?)
Middle: More specific; such as has wings, can fly, and has feathers (“Does a rooster have feathers?”)
Top: Abstract, applies to all animals, such as has skin, can move around, eats… (Does a blue jay have skin?) - 40How does the brain work to process different categories of info? Deficits that can come with itBrain uses different brain areas
Depending on which area of the brain is damaged, patients lose the ability to identify or process info for a specific category. - 41What is a forgetting curve?The amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall or recognize across time
example: why babies can not remember, (can not recall or encode with verbal) - 42What is the difference on forgetting curve for: familiar and interesting vs unfamiliar and uninterestingfamiliar and interesting:
Easier for recognition than recall
vs
unfamiliar and uninteresting:
almost impossible to do, Hermann failed - 43What is forgetting?The inability to retrieve, recall, or recognize information that was stored in LTM
- 44Name and explain the reasons for forgetting- Repression: mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening info in unconscious. Something may cause them to enter consciousness later.
- Poor Retrieval Cues/Poor Encoding: You could form retrieval cues when doing elaborative rehearsals, poor cues = retrieve poorly = won’t remember as well.
- Interference
- Amnesia: temp or permanent loss of memory that may occur after a blow, damage to brain, disease, general anesthesia, certain drugs, or severe psychological trauma.
- Distortion: bias or suggestibility.
Bias: only remember good high school grades and conveniently forget the bad ones.
Suggestibility: therapists. - 45What are the two types of amnesia?Anterograde amnesia: not remembering what happen after accident, could not make new memories
Retrograde amnesia: can not remember what happened before accident - 46What is interference? Name the two typesHappens because old or newer related info produces confusion and thus blocks retrieval from memory.
When you have more than one test on one day.
Proactive Interference: old information (learned EARLIER) blocks the remembering of related new information (learned LATER)
ex: You study psych really well, then start studying sociology. When you take your socio exam, you may forget some of the socio terms
Retroactive interference: new information (learned LATER) blocks the retrieval of related old information (learned EARLIER)
ex: from 1-3 you study psych. From 3-6 you study socio. You may experience difficulty with psych terms b/c of your new socio info - 47What is state-dependent learning?It is easier to recall information when you are in the same physiological or emotional state of setting as when you originally encoded the information
- 48What is context-dependent learning?Associating certain area with certain notions (absorbing context in addition to the encoding, context can help, the classroom, who were you sitting with)
- 49Name the parts of the brain associated with STM, LTM, emotional memories and transferring memoriesCortex: STM
Cortex: LTM
Amygdala: Emotional Memories, tip of temporal lobe and receives input from all the senses. With damage, memories lose their emotional impact such as no longer finding loud noises unpleasant or no longer recog facial expressions as fearly or happy.
Hippocampus: Transferring Memories, from STM to LTM, rolled up cortex beneath the cortex in the temporal lobe.
Important for declarative memories.
Not important for procedural memory
“save button” - 50What are neural assemblies?Groups of interconnected neurons whose activation allows information or stimuli to be recognized and held briefly and temporarily in STM
to make STM memories - 51How to make LTM memories?Long-term potentiation, or LTP, refers to changes in the structure and function of neurons after they have been repeatedly stimulated, encoding in other words
- 52What are mnemonic methods (definition)?Ways to improve encoding and create better retrieval cues by forming vivid associations or images, which improve recall
- 53What is the method of Loci?An encoding technique that creates visual associations between already memorized places and new items to be memorized
Memorize visual sequence of places in your kitchen: sink, cabinet, fridge - 54What is the peg method?An encoding technique that creates associations between number-word rhymes and items to be memorized
1 is a bun
2 is a shoe
3 is a tree
4 is a door
5 is a bee hive
Next, associate every word with what it is you have to memorize - 55What is own-race bias?There are problems in correctly identifying individuals of another race.People better recognize faces of their own race than faces of other races.
No correlations between certainty and exactitude - 56What is a cognitive interview?Having witnesses imagine and reconstruct the details of an event without holding anything back, and narrate the event from different view points.
- 57—A: Incoming information
B: Sensory memory
/: No attention, forgotten
C: Selective attention
D: STM
#: not encoded, forgotten
E: rehearsal
F: Encoded for storage
G: LTM - 58What is a memory span test?measures the total number of digits that one can repeat backward after a single hearing
- 59What are the three functions of STM?attending: paying intention
rehearsing: repeating the info
storing: - 60What type of LTM storing is linked with classical conditioning?Procedural memory
- 61What is the levels-of-processing theory?remembering depends on how information is encoded
- 62When is the earliest memory?at the age of 3 1/2 years old
- 63What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?Temporarily incapable to recall a particular informationhi
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- cegep Fichas sobre Final exam psycho, creado por Camille Houde el 28/11/2018.
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