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Primate Behaviour Flashcards 2
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- 1EvolutionA change in the frequency of heritable traits in a population from one generation to the next
- 2MicroevolutionEvolution over a short time scale that can be reversible and often leads to adaptations to local conditions
- 3MacroevolutionA lot of change over a long period of time that can result in speciation
- 4Mechanisms of EvolutionMutation
Gene Flow
Genetic Drift
Selection - 5Factors of Natural SelectionVariation
Inheritance
Overproduction
Differential survival and reproduction - 6Examples of VariationHeight, body shape, finger length, hair colour, skin tone, eye colour, age at sexual maturity
- 7InheritanceWhen traits (in the form of genes) are passed from parent to offspring
- 8GenesA piece of DNA that codes for a trait
- 9AlleleA specific variant of a gene
- 10Overproduction/High MortalityThe fact that there are always more offspring born that can or do survive to adulthood
Leads to competition as each generation experiences substantial mortality due to limited resources, predation, and disease - 11Differential Survival and ReproductionOnly the survivors of the competition for resources will reproduce
The environment naturally selects some forms or variations over others - 12FitnessThe ability to survive and reproduce
Fitness = Reproductive Success - 13SociobiologyAnswers questions about why animals behave the way they do in the context of evolution
- 14Factors of SociobiologyKin Selection
Reciprocal Altruism
Parental Investment - 15AltruismA behaviour that benefits the recipient at a cost to the actor
- 16Primate Examples of AltriusmPredator alarm calls
Assisting in a fight
Defending a group member from predator
Feeding/caring for a baby - 17Kin SelectionFavours altruistic behaviour towards kin because it could result in increased genetic contribution to the next generation
- 18Inclusive FitnessIncludes individual reproductive fitness
Includes the fitness of relatives
Is weighed by the proportion of genes the relatives share with the individual - 19Altruistic Behaviour as Related to Inclusive FitnessAltruistic behaviour increases inclusive fitness while potentially lowering individual fitness
- 20Examples of Altruistic Behaviour as Related to Kin SelectionCooperative polyandry
Coalition formation
Food sharing
Social Grooming - 21Hamilton's RuleAn individual will be selected to help a relative whenever the cost is less than the benefit times degree of relatedness
- 22Coefficient of Relatedness[r] will always be a fraction between 0.99 and 0 expect in the case of identical twins (then it will be 1)
It is the probability that the donor and recipient share genes - 23Hypotheses for Recognizing KinOdour, visual cues (variation in facial features), recognition/familiarity with maternal kin
- 24NepotismThe act of favouring your relatives, a synonym for kin selection
- 25Reciprocal AltruismIndividuals help others so that they get help in the future when the need it
Can occur between non-relatives - 26Example of Reciprocal AltruismLower ranking females groom higher ranking females more often that the opposite
In conflict, higher ranking females support low - 27MutualismA relationship where both individuals benefit
Not considered a form of altruism because it has no cost - 28Sexual SelectionA mechanism to explain secondary sex characteristics where one sex chooses traits in another sex
- 29Secondary Sex CharacteristicsDistinctions that appear at puberty that go beyond basic reproductive differences, can be detrimental to fitness
- 30Examples of Secondary Sex CharacteristicsSize, colouration, body size, body shape, weaponry, ornamentation
- 31Intrasexual SelectionCompetition between members of the same sex, usually between males for access to females
Secondary sex characteristics give males a fitness advantage - 32Intersexual SelectionCompetition between members of the opposite sex, usually females choose males
- 33Traits for Intrasexual SelectionTraits associated with winning direct battles that advertises competitive ability to other males, such as weaponry, body size, body shape, etc.
- 34Traits for Intersexual SelectionTraits that make males more attractive to females, such as courtship displays, ornamentation, plumage or pelage, skin colouration, deeper voices, etc.
- 35Natural Selection vs Sexual SelectionReproductive success is the bottom line for both, but natural selection emphasizes survival until reproductive maturity and sexual selection emphasis reproduction and is more of a social stress, acts more strongly on males
- 36Parental InvestmentThe investment by a parent in an individual offspring that increases the child's fitness at a cost to the parent
- 37Conflict Resulting From Parental InvestmentConflict between siblings
Conflict between parents and offspring
Conflict between the parents - 38Conflict Between SiblingsFrom parental investment. New offspring means less time and energy to invest in older offspring
- 39Conflict Between Parents and OffspringFrom parental investment. There is conflict because there needs to be enough investment to keep the offspring alive and healthy while not sacrificing future reproductive success
- 40Conflict Between ParentsFrom parental investment. There are sex differences in optimal strategies for raising young
- 41Female Parental InvestmentHigh.
Produce a large nutrient-rich egg, have a limited number of eggs, have gestation and lactation periods - 42Male Parental InvestmentLow.
Produce low energy sperm, have infinite sperm, no gestation or lactation period - 43AnisogamySexual reproduction by the fusion of dissimilar gametes
- 44GestationThe mother carries the fetus while it matures and develops before birth
- 45LactationSecretion of milk by the mammary glands that provides the infant with food and energy
- 46Lactational AmenorrheaTemporary infertility that occurs after birth when the mother is breastfeeding
- 47Optimal Reproductive Strategy for MalesGo for as many fertilizations as possible and move on immediately afterward to conserve energy
- 48Optimal Reproductive Strategy for FemalesChoose males that will provide assistance, good territory, good genes, etc.
- 49Maximum Reproductive OutputThe maximum amount of offspring that could potentially be produced by an individual/sex
- 50Maximum Reproductive Output for FemalesLow.
The reproductive lifespan is not infinite, the inter-birth interval depends on pregnancy and lactational amenorrhea length - 51Maximum Reproductive Output for MalesHigh.
Dictated by access to females and not much else - 52Variance in Reproductive Success for FemalesLow variance.
Females of a species typically have a similar number of offspring because they have a similar reproductive lifespan and a similar inter-birth interval - 53Variance in Reproductive Success for MalesHigh variance.
Males have more variation among them in terms of the number of offspring they sire - 54Limiting Factors for FemalesFemales are limited by access to energetic resources
They have costly reproduction but easy access to mates - 55Limiting Factors for MalesMales are limited by access to reproductive opportunities
They have cheap reproduction but finding conceptive females is tricky - 56EstrusThe time around ovulation when a female is potentially able to conceive
- 57Male Techniques to Gain Access to Limiting FactorsTry to influence female choice
Males compete with each other
Sexual coercion - 58Influence Female ChoiceA technique used by males to gain access to reproductive opportunities.
Males develop secondary sex characteristics to increase their fitness in intersexual selection
Male develops friendship with a lactating female and infant - 59Mating Effort HypothesisMale friendships may function to enhance a male's attractiveness as a future mating partner
- 60Males Compete with Each OtherA technique used by males to gain access to reproductive opportunities.
Male monopolization and male fighting (intrasexual selection) - 61Male MonopolizationWhen males defend exclusive access to one or several females, particularly when they are in estrus
Depends on the number of females in the group and the distribution of estrus females - 62Male Competition in Uni-Male GroupsThere is low competition over females within group, but high between groups because natal males are evicted and there are groups of males who want to join
- 63Male Competition in Multi-Male GroupThere is high competition over females within group, but low between groups because natal males are not evicted
- 64Asynchronous FemalesCan conceive at different times, easier for males to monopolize
- 65Synchronous FemalesCan conceive and go into estrus at the same time, a counter-strategy to male monopolization
- 66Dominance HierarchyA ranking of individuals based on the outcome of aggressive and submissive interactions
- 67Benefits of Dominant IndividualsCan inflict costs on lower ranking individuals, access resources and win physical confrontations
Dominance often leads to reproductive success - 68Intrinsic FactorsTraits of a given individual that can influence dominance hierarchies
Age
Body size/wight/fighting ability/health
Personality - 69Rank in Dominance Hierarchy Depend onIntrinsic factors of the individual
Inheritance from parent/mother
Coalitions for fighting - 70CoalitionsWhen 2 or more individuals provide mutual support in social settings
Can result from kin selection or reciprocal altruism - 71Inheritance of Mother's RankOnly occurs when the male stays in the natal group for patrilineal species and when the female stays in the natal for matrilineal species
- 72Patrilineal SpeciesAlso called male philopatry. When males stay in their natal groups at sexual maturity and females disperse
- 73Matrilineal SpeciesAlso called female philopatry. When females stay in their natal groups at sexual maturity and males disperse
- 74Mixed Sex DispersalWhen members of both sexes disperse at sexual maturity
- 75Parallel DispersalWhen an individual transfers between groups with kin or friends or immigrates to a group that already has familiar individuals
- 76Female Counter-Strategies to Monopolization1. Synchronous estrus cycles
2. Back up preferred males in aggressive encounters
3. Have sneaky copulations with lower ranking or extra-group individuals
4. Switch social groups during inter-group encounters - 77Secondary Dispersal in MalesMales may switch groups multiple times depending on the reproductive prospects/adult sex rations, success with females in that group, ability to rise in rank
- 78Sperm CompetitionPost-copulatory competition between males that is an alternative to direct agression
Relative male testes size to body size
Last male precedence (penis may displace sperm of rival male)
Copulatory/Sperm plug - 79Female Counter-Strategies to Sperm CompetitionDiscard the sperm of the current male
Re-mate with another male
Remove copulatory plug - 80Sexual CoercionA technique used by males to gain access to reproductive opportunities.
The use of force by a male or threat of force that increases mating chance for that male or decreases chance for other male at some cost to the female - 81Types of CoercionHarassment
Intimidation
Mate Guarding
Mate Herding
Forced Copulation
Infanticide - 82HarassmentA type of sexual coercion. Continual sexual solicitations or aggression towards females that are unwilling to mate
- 83IntimidationA type of sexual coercion. Aggression towards receptive females that may make the female more likely to mate with them
- 84Mate GuardingA type of sexual coercion. Staying in proximity to a female and aggressively keeping other males away. Only works against less dominant males
- 85Mate HerdingA type of sexual coercion. Controlling female movements to keep her away from other groups of males
- 86Forced CopulationA type of sexual coercion. Forcing the female to mate when she is unwilling
- 87InfanticideThe most extreme type of sexual coercion. Behaviour of an individual that leads to the death of an immature conspecific (member of same species)
- 88Explanations for InfanticidePrimary explanation is sexual selection by ending lactational amenorrhea.
By-product of aggression, eliminating future competition, nutritive pros of cannibalism, abnormal individual are other explanations - 89Conditions for Sexual Selected InfanticideOffspring is unfamiliar, must end lactational amenorrhea, female must mate with infanticidal male, only kills a nursing infant
- 90Female Counter-Strategies to InfanticideObscure paternity among males
Acceleration of weaning to stop lactational amenorrhea
Abort the zygote before birth (due to stress) - 91CrypsisThe ability to avoid detection by other organisms
- 92Ancestral Primate Social SystemsThe first primates were small, quiet, nocturnal, solitary, which helped them avoid predators
- 93Switch to DiurnalityLess competition for food, open diurnal niches, easier to detect food, but increases risk of predation
- 94Predation Defence HypothesisSociality can be an effective anti-predator strategy by using
Collective Detection
Dilution Effects
Defence/Deterrence - 95Collective DetectionA strategy to decrease risk of predation. More individuals = more eyes and ears to detect predators, each individual can spend more time on other tasks
- 96Dilution EffectsA strategy to decrease risk of predation. A predator is less likely to attack a certain individual in a large group, uses selfish predator avoidance
- 97Selfish Predator AvoidanceWhen an individual seeks cover using group mates ("here, eat my brother!")
- 98Defence/DeterrenceA strategy to decrease risk of predation. Groups may fight odd or deter predators from attacking using defensive mechanisms
- 99Defensive Mechanisms for PredatorsIncluded in defense/deterrence. May have weaponry, large body size, may shake/break branches, or use aggressive mobbing
- 100Resource Defense HypothesisGroup-living improves access to food resource and individuals can cooperate to defend the best food patches against solitary animals or smaller groups
- 101Other Benefits of Group-LivingMates are readily available
There are more eyes to look for food or resource patches
There is female protection for their young - 102Intra-Group CompetitionA cost of group living
There is competition for food and mates between group members - 103Vulnerability to DiseaseA cost of group living
Solitary individuals do not contract disease as often as groups of individuals living in close quarters
(Western Lowland Gorilla in Congo got ebola) - 104Group Size and Composition TypesThe number of adult males and females living in the group
Solitary
Pair-living
Multimale-Unifemale
Unimale-Multifemale
Multimale-Multifemale - 105SolitaryMales and females live alone, with mothers living with infants. Females have individual home range and males have overlapping home-ranges, typically low male investment in offspring
- 106Pair-LivingOne male and one female live with dependent offspring, are often territorial and sexually monomorphic. Male involvement in offspring varies
- 107Multimale - UnifemaleOne female paired with multiple males, very rare group type, extra males help carry the young, extra males are usually related to the mating male
- 108Unimale - MultifemaleSeveral adult females and offspring live with one resident male, typically very sexually dimorphic, form temporary super-groups
- 109Multimale - MultifemaleOne male will mate with multiple females and vice versa. Paternity is uncertain
- 110Cohesion of the Social UnitDepends on how much the group stays together and how much the individuals influence each other
- 111Cohesive GroupsStay together all the time, maintain visual and vocal contact, are smaller groups with smaller home ranges, have coordinated activities
- 112Fission-Fusion GroupsHave a fluid structure where groups split from the main community, are larger groups with larger home ranges, have little activity coordination, have group fusion at the end of the day
- 113Multilevel SocietiesA sort of organized fission-fusion group that have multiple levels of society
One-male unit
The clan
The band
The herd/troop - 114One-Male UnitUnimale - multifemale group that sometimes includes a second follower male
- 115Clan2 or more One-male units where males are usually related
- 116Band2-4 clans that eat and sleep together
- 117Herd/TroopMade of several bands, can number in the hundreds
- 118Mating SystemThe individuals that mate/reproduce with one another in a social system
- 119MonogamyOne male mates with one female
- 120PolygynyOne male mates with multiple females
- 121PolygynandryMales and females have multiple mates
- 122PolyandryOne female mates with multiple males
- 123Mating System and Group CompositionOften, but don't always correlate. Can have a solitary group that is polygynous, pair-living that is monogamish, multimale - multifemale that is polygyny
- 124Social StructureThe nature and patterning of interactions that define social relationships between individuals in a social group
- 125SociogramA tool for charting the relationships within a group that accounts for links and preferences
Thicker connections mean a stronger connection and vice versa - 126Dispersal PatternsFemale Resident Groups
Male Resident Groups
Neither Resident Groups - 127Female Resident GroupsAlso called matrilineal groups/female philopatry/male-biased dispersal
Males disperse and females remain in their natal groups, leads to strong female bonds - 128Male Resident GroupsAlso called patrilineal groups/male philopatry/brotherhood
Females disperse and males remain in their natal groups, females are indifferent to one another - 129Neither Resident GroupsAlso called mixed-sex dispersal when both females and males leave the natal groups, strongest bond is between adult male and female
- 130Evolutionary/Ultimate ExplanationExplanations for behaviour that focuses on the contributions to reproductive success of individuals in past environments.
Example for dispersal theory: dispersal limits inbreeding in groups - 131Proximate ExplanationFocuses on immediate causes or trigger leading to the expression of a behaviour
Example for dispersal theory: dispersal occurs because of eviction, attraction to extra-group individuals or abduction - 132Time of DispersalNatal dispersal occurs at puberty
Secondary dispersal occurs depending on the social environment - 133Primate Social System FactorsMade up of the:
Social Organization
Mating System
Social Structure - 134Feeding Competition ModelThe distribution of females is largely determined by the quality, abundance, and distribution of food
- 135Female Feeding BehaviourDepends on food quality, spatial distribution and temporal distribution
- 136High Quality FoodIs rich in easily digestible energy and protein, is high in lipids and carbohydrates. Usually have a patchy distribution
- 137Low Quality FoodIs poor in energy and protein, usually contain tannins and alkaloids, are high in cellulose and dietary fibre.
Usually have an even distribution - 138Even DistributionFood is found equally in all locations
- 139Clumped DistributionFood is only found in certain clumps/groups
- 140Food PatchA discrete clump of food
- 141Temporal DistributionThe time at which food is available
Trees come into flower and fruit at different times - 142Contest CompetitionHigh quality food in clumped distribution is worth monopolizing in a directly aggressive way. Will affect group members differently (some will get more to eat than others)
- 143Scramble CompetitionLow quality food is found in even distribution and is not worth monopolizing. An indirect form of competition that is non-aggressive (first-come-first-serve) and affects all group members equally
- 144Socioecological TheoryPredicts that primate social structures respond in predictable ways to food abundance, distribution and quality and that differences in feeding pressures will affect
Types of Female - Female Competition
Dispersal Patterns
Presence or Absence of Dominance Hierarchy between Females - 145Youngest Daughter AscendancyThe youngest daughters outrank the oldest daughters
Common to Old World Monkeys - 146DespoticResults from high within-group competition where there is clearly established linear dominance with few reversals
- 147TolerantResults from high between-group competition where dominance relationships exist but subordinates are tolerated and there are more reversals
- 148Phylogenetic InertiaWhen taxa that are closely related to one another may be similar to each other simply because of evolutionary relatedness
- 149High Quality Diets in the Feeding Competition ModelHigh quality food in clumped distribution leads to contest competition and female dominance hierarchies where females form coalitionary bonds
- 150Low Quality Diets in the Feeding Competition ModelLow quality food in even distribution leads to scramble competition and female dispersal where females have egalitarian relationships
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- (Primate Behaviour) Anthropology Fichas sobre Primate Behaviour Flashcards 2, creado por Natasha Gidluck el 31/05/2020.
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