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- 1Atkinson and ShriffinMulti-store model of memory - STM, LTM and SM that go from one another in a linear way. Pre-frontal cortex= STM Hippocampus=LTM Reductionist - over-simplified. Studies showing evidence (case study of Craig Wearing) lack ecological validity and therefore external reliability. Easily testable through PET and FMRIscans.
- 2Baddeley and HitchWorking Memory Model - suggested multiple stores. The CE, V-S S, and PL. They did a study where two tasks were to be carried out simultaneously - one condition the tasks both required the V-SS and the second one required V-SS and PL. Condition two was more successful - evidence for multiple stores. CE quite vague
- 3Miller'Miller's Magic Number' - STM can hold 7+/-2 items.
- 4Glanzer et alEvidence for STM and LTM being different stores. (Support for Multi-Store Model). P's were most likely to recall words from the beginning (LTM) and the end (STM) of a list. Primacy and recency affect - a delay of 10+seconds resulted in only a primacy affect. Thus giving evidence for the MSM.
- 5Shallice et al.Case study of KF who suffered brain damage resulting in difficulty with verbal information in STM but not with visual information. This highlights how STM is not a single store as the MSM suggests.
- 6Schachter et al.Suggests LTM might not be a single store either - Proposed 4 types of LTM stores; semanitc, episodic, procedural and perceptual-representation systems.
- 7Spiers et al.Supporting multiple LTM stores - studied 147 amnesia patients and found problems with semantic and episodic but not procedural and perceptual-representation system.
- 8Clive WearingCase study - he highlights further the separate LTM stores - he lost his episodic memory but his procedural wasn't affected. Lacks ecological validity and external reliability, however.
- 9Eslinger et al.Suggested the CE of the Working Memory is not one component - Patient EVR had tumour removed, and although their reasoning was good, their decision making skills were not, suggesting that part of the CE was damaged. WMM therefore incomplete and reductionist.
- 10BaddeleyDemonstrated existence of Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad - p's had to track a moving light with pointer whilst being asked to either describe the angles of the letter F or perform a verbal task. They struggled to describe the angles, showing the limited capacity of the VSS but also how it differs from the PL.
- 11Poole et al.Younger children poorer witness as they struggle with 'source recognition' - Showed 3-8 year olds a demonstration followed by listening to a story with information on it and extra info. When asked about the demonstration, they were inclined to mix up information from that and the story.
- 12Rhodes et al.18-25, 35-45, 55-78yr olds shown 24 photos of people representative of the different ages. After being shown another 24 and asked how many they recognized from the prior exercise, young and middle aged were most accurate, however all age groups were most accurate when recalling their own age groups Experience Hypothesis
- 13Warren et al.read out a story to a group of children and their parents and then asked 20 questions, 15 of them being misleading. He found that children were more susceptible to being influence by leading questions, thus suggesting age is an important factory of EWT.
- 14Memon et al.found that if age groups ranging from 6-82 were questioned immediately after an event, recall accuracy had little difference however over a period of a week older their recall declined significantly.
- 15DeffenbacherReviewed 21 studies, found stress-performance followed the Yerkes-Dodson Curve - low/high levels of anxiety meant poor recall, moderate anxiety producing optimal level of recall. Suggested that understanding the level of anxiety is key in court evidence to determine the validity of their account.
- 16Clifford and ScottFound that participants who had witness a film of a violent attack remembered less than those in a control group who saw a less stressful version. Concluded that witnessing this in real life would be far more stressful than on a film and that memory accuracy would be far more affected. -Lacks E.V (laboratory)
- 17Loftus et al.2 groups, different conditions, one being witnessing a man exiting a discussion holding a pen, two with him exiting holding a paper knife covered in blood. Group 1 were 49% accurate, group 2 only 33% in recalling what the man looked like. One explanation is that they were too focused on the weapon in condition 2. - Lacks E.V (laboratory)
- 18Yuille and Cutshallstudy contradicts laboratory findings, highlights importance of stress - witnesses to a real-life gun crime had extremely accurate accounts of what they saw, even 5 months later and were not affected by misleading questions. - witnesses closest to event had most accurate recall - proximity to events may be confounding variable.
- 19DeffenbacherReviewed 21 studies, found stress-performance followed the Yerkes-Dodson Curve - low/high levels of anxiety meant poor recall, moderate anxiety producing optimal level of recall. Suggested that understanding the level of anxiety is key in court evidence to determine the validity of their account.
- 20Clifford and Scottpeople who saw a film of a violent attack remembered less than people in a control group who saw a less stressful version. They concluded that witnessing stressful situations in real life will be far more stressful than observing a film and memory accuracy may well be more affected in real life
- 21Loftus et al. (anxiety on EWT)first condition p's wtinessed a man exiting a discussion holding a pen, condition 2 saw a man exiting holding a paperknife covered in blood. Group 1 were more accurate (49%) than the group 2(33%). Explanation is the weapon may have distracted their attention from everything else happening (weapon-focus)
- 22Yuille and Cutshallhighlights importance of stress in EWT - found that witnesses of real-life crime were very accurate in recall, even 5 months later. Leading questions had no effect. - witnesses closest to the event were most stressed so proximity to events may have been a confounding variable.
- 23Loftus and Palmer (effects of misleading questions on EWT)45 students (lacks population validity) shown films of road accidents and given a questionnaire (could be misunderstood), a critical question varied between conditions: "how fast were the cars going when they hit", hit being replaced with collided, smashed, contacted. Average estimate of speed was effected depending on the word.
-Was recreated with another group but the p's were asked if they saw any glass when they 'smashed' or 'hit'. The ones in the control group were more accurate than those who were asked the misleading questions.
Laboratory, so lacks E.V but high control over extraneous variables. - 24Warren et alFound younger children are more susceptible to influence of leading questions than older.
- 25Forster et al.study where participants who thought they were watching a real life robbery and believed their responses would have an impact on an upcoming trial. they were more accurate on recall. Suggests although leading questions may have some impact in laboratory settings, in real life other factors such as stress or concentration can override.
- 26The Cognitive Interview-Report every detail
- Recreate the context
- Recall events in different orders
- Recall events from a different perspective
Also try to reduce the anxiety of the witness, minimize distractions and take their time to avoid misleading questions - 27Kohnken et al.meta analysis of 53 studies (mostly students in laboratories) found the CI increased recall on average by 34% compared to the standard interview. - Has real world application, especially in law-enforcement where police may find this useful in solving cases.
- 28Fisher et al.found evidence for CI in real-world application - 16 police officers (7 CI, 9 standard interview) interviewed 47 people twice who were witnesses or victims of crime. Results showed that the CI gained 47% more facts than the standard interview, concluding it was better for EWT. -High in external validity.
- 29Wagstaff et al.Reported that in practice, police officers stated CI requires more time than what is usually available so they often limit the witnesses account to what they feel is necessary.
- 30Emerson et al.evidence to support Learning Theory - studied 60 babies over 18 months. at 3 months they had no preferences but after 4 months these started to develop, special attachment from 7 months onwards with separation anxiety from PCG's- attachment most likely to form with those who are most tentative and sensitive to the child.
- 31Harlow et al.found food alone cannot explain attachments - placed baby monkeys with two 'mothers' - one made with wire and carrying food, one made of cloth, no food. Behaviorists would expect the monkeys to attach to the one with food, but Harlow found the monkeys clinged to the cloth mother, especially when distressed. The monkeys struggled forming reproductive relationships when older also. Supports Bowlby's evolutionary theory.
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