Lecture 4: Neuroanatomy

Pregunta	Respuesta
What are the directions in the 3D space of the brain?	Anterior (rostral) Posterior (caudal) Dorsal Ventral Medial Lateral
What is the midline?	Line running down the middle of the nervous system Symmetrical halves
What is the neuraxis?	Imaginary line running through the spinal cord to the front of the brain
What direction does anterior/rostral refer to?	Towards the nose or head
What direction does posterior/caudal refer to?	Towards the tail
What direction does dorsal refer to?	Towards the back
What direction does ventral refer to?	Towards the belly
What direction does medial refer to?	Towards the midline
What direction does lateral refer to?	Away from the midline
What are the 3 planes of section in the CNS?	Sagittal Coronal/Frontal Horizontal
What is the sagittal plane?	Cut perpendicular to the ground and parallel to the neuraxis
What is the midsagittal plane?	Cuts in sagittal plane down middle to divide the brain into two symmetrical halves
What is the coronal/frontal plane?	Transverse cuts or cuts perpendicular to the ground and to the sagittal plane
What is the horizontal plane?	Cuts parallel to the ground
What is the difference between nuclei and ganglia?	Nuclei are a collection of cell bodies in the CNS; Ganglia are a collection of cell bodies in the PNS
What is the difference between afferent and efferent?	Afferent: incoming axons/information towards an area Efferent: Outgoing axons/information away from an area
What is the difference between contralateral and ipsilateral?	Contralateral: opposite side Ipsilateral: Same side
What are the 5 major divisions of the brain at maturity?	Mesencephalon Myencephalon Diencephalon Telencephalon Metencephalon
What is the first development of the CNS?	Neural tube
What does the neural tube first develop into?	Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain
What does the forebrain develop into?	Telencephalon Diencephalon
What does the midbrain develop into?	Mesencephalon
What does the hindbrain develop into?	Metencephalon Myelencephalon
What are meninges?	Protective sheath around the brain and spinal cord
What are the 3 layers of the meninges?	Dura mater Arachnoid membrane Pia mater
What is the dura mater?	Thick, tough, flexible outer layer of the meninges
What is the arachnoid membrane?	Middle layer of the meninges that is spongy and soft and has a web-like appearance
What is the subarachnoid space?	Space between pia mater and arachnoid membrane that is filled with CSF
What is the pia mater?	Thin membrane of the meninges that is closely attached the brain and spinal cord
What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?	Clear fluid similar to blood plasma that fills the ventricular system and subarachnoid space of the brain and spinal cord
What are ventricles?	Hollow spaces in the brain that are interconnected and filled with CSF Protection for the brain
What is the choroid plexus?	Makes CSF using components from blood
What is the path for the circulation of CSF?	Lateral ventricles → 3rd ventricle → cerebral aqueduct → 4th ventricle → openings in the subarachnoid space → reabsorbed into the blood
What part of the brain is the telencephalon located in?	Forebrain
What does the telencephalon contain?	Cortex Basal ganglia Limbic system
What are the structural features of the human cortex?	Large surface area Largely convoluted Sulci & gyri
What is a sulcus?	Large groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere
What is a gyrus?	Ridge of cortex surrounded by sulci
What are the structural divisions of the cortex?	Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe
Where is the frontal lobe?	Anterior to central fissure
Where is the parietal lobe?	On the side of the cerebral hemisphere posterior to the central fissure
Where is the temporal lobe?	Ventral to the lateral fissure on the sides of the brain Ventral to frontal and parietal lobes
Where is the occipital lobe?	Posterior end of brain caudal to the parietal lobe
What are the 3 large regions of the cortex that receive sensory information?	Primary visual cortex (V1) Primary auditory cortex (A1) Primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
What is the region of cortex involved in control of movement?	Primary motor cortex (M1)
What are association areas?	Perceiving, learning, remembering, planning and acting
What are the 2 association areas of the cortex?	Sensory association cortex Motor association cortex
What is the sensory association cortex involved in?	Perceiving and storing memories
What is the motor association cortex involved in?	Planning and execution of movements
What is the function of the prefrontal cortex?	Planning and strategizing
Where is the prefrontal cortex?	All cortical areas rostral to the motor association cortex
What connects the two cerebral hemispheres?	Corpus callosum
What is lateralization?	Functions that are located in just one cerebral hemisphere (one side of the body only)
How is most information in the brain projected?	Contralaterally
What does it mean to "split the brain"?	Procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers between them
What is the left hemisphere primarily responsible for?	Analyzing information Sequential processing. extraction of elements, organizing serial events
What is the right hemisphere primarily responsible for?	Synthesis of information Ability to draw 3D objects, read maps, non-sequential processing
Where are language and speech lateralized?	Left hemisphere Wernicke's area and Broca's area
What is the function of the Wernicke's area?	Speech comprehension
What is the function of the Broca's area?	Speech production
Where is emotion recognition and facial expression production lateralized?	Right hemisphere
What has an advantage in recognizing facial expressions and emotion in the tone of voice?	Left-ear/left-visual field
What is Gazzaniga's theory about the hemispheres?	Left hemisphere is "the interpreter"- searches for causal relationships and seeks explanations Right hemisphere maintains accuracy- keeps an accurate record of events
What does Gazzaniga's theory state as its advantages to a dual system?	Right maintains the record Left can elaborate and make inferences and predictions
How do we get evidence for lateralization?	Split-brain patients People who have had their corpus callosum severed
What is split-brain surgery used as a last-resort treatment for?	Epilepsy
How are gray matter and white matter structured in the cortex?	Gray matter is most external; white matter is internal White matter: axon tracts & fiber pathways
How are the layers structured in the cortex?	Older parts of the brain have fewer cortical layers
Where is the diencephalon located in the brain?	Forebrain
What structures does the diencephalon contain?	Thalamus and hypothalamus
What do the thalamus and hypothalamus surround?	3rd ventricle
Where is the thalamus?	Located in the center of the brain ventral to the cortex
What is the thalamus?	Two lobes connected by massa intermedia
What is the primary function of the thalamus?	Sensory relay to cortex
Where is the hypothalamus located?	Base of the brain under the thalamus
What does the hypothalamus contain?	Many nuclei and fiber tracts Autonomic and endocrine system
What is the function of the hypothalamus?	Organizes behavior related survival 4 F's (Fighting, fleeing, feeding and mating)
What is the pituitary gland controlled by?	Hypothalamus
What are neurosecretory cells?	Specialized neurons in the hypothalamus that secrete hormones that stimulate the anterior pituitary to release hormones
What are the 2 divisions of the pituitary gland?	Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary
What does the anterior pituitary do?	Secretes hormones that control the endocrine glands in the body
What is the posterior pituitary?	Extension of the hypothalamus Hypothalamus produces hormones that get secreted by posterior pituitary
What 3 divisions of the brain contain limbic system?	Telencephalon, Diencephalon & Mesencephalon
What is the limbic system involved in?	Emotion, learning & memory
What structures are in the limbic system?	Hippocampus Amygdala Fornix Mammillary bodies Cingulate gyrus Septum pellucidum & septal nuclei Nucleus accumbens
What is the hippocampus?	Rams horn shape Involved in learning & memory
What is the amygdala?	Almond shape at rostral end of the temporal lobe Involved in emotion, fear and specific types of learning & memory
What is the fornix?	Fiber tract that connects the hippocampus with the mammillary bodies
What are mammillary bodies?	Protrusion on the base of the brain under the hypothalamus
What is the cingulate gyrus?	Region of limbic cortex above corpus callosum
What are the septum pellucidum/septal nuclei?	Involved in reward/reinforcement
What is the nucleus accumbens?	Associated with reward, pleasure, aggression and impulsivity
Which two divisions of the brain contain the basal ganglia?	Telencephalon & Diencephalon
What is the basal ganglia?	Collection of nuclei involved in the control of movement
What 3 structures comprise the basal ganglia?	Caudate Putamen Globus Pallidus
What is the striatum?	Caudate & putamen
What division of the brain is the Mesencephalon?	Midbrain
What is surrounded by the mesencephalon?	Cerebral aqueduct
What are the two primary structures of the mesencephalon?	Tectum & Tegmentum
Where is the tectum located?	Dorsal part of midbrain
What are the 2 systems in the tectum?	Inferior colliculi Superior colliculi
What are the inferior colliculi involved in?	Auditory system
What are the superior colliculi involved in?	Visual system (visual reflexes)
Where is the tegmentum located?	Ventral part of midbrain beneath the tectum
What structures is the tegmentum comprised of?	Reticular formation Oculomotor nuclei Periaqueductal gray (PAG) Red nucleus Substantia nigra (SN) Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
What is the reticular formation?	Rostral end of tegmentum Many nuclei Involved in sleep, arousal, attention, movement and reflexes
What are the oculomotor nuclei?	Nuclei controlling eye movements
What is the PAG?	Surrounds cerebral aqueduct Controls sequences of movements in species-specific behaviors
What is the red nucleus?	Motor nucleus Receives motor information from cerebellum and cortex and sends it to the spinal cord
What is the SN?	Motor nucleus Connected to caudate and putamen
What is the VTA?	Connected to the prefrontal cortex & nucleus accumbens Motivational system
What division of the brain contains the Metencephalon?	Hindbrain
What comprises the metencephalon?	Pons & cerebellum
What is the pons?	Large bulge in brainstem between the mesencephalon and the medulla, ventral to the cerebellum
What is the function of the pons?	Contains reticular formation (sleep and arousal) and relay nuclei (information from cortex to the cerebellum)
What is the cerebellum?	Dorsal to the pons Two cerebellar hemispheres Important component of the motor system
What is the cerebellum involved in?	Any movement that needs timing information Complex movement patterns
Where is the myelencephalon located?	Hindbrain
What is the myelencephalon comprised of?	Medulla Reticular formation
What is the medulla?	Most caudal portion of the brain Lower border is the rostral end of the spinal cord Reticular formation regulates cardiovascular system, breathing & skeletal muscle tone
What is the origin of the spinal cord?	Notochord
What is the spinal cord?	Cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla
What are the functions of the spinal cord?	Distributes motor axons to effector organs and muscles Collects somatosensory information to pass to brain Reflexive circuits
What protects the spinal cord?	Vertebrae
What is the cauda equina?	End of cord that is made up of spinal roots
How is the spinal cord structured?	Small bundles of axons emerge from each side of the spinal cord in 2 lines on the dorsolateral & ventrolateral surface 31 pairs of dorsal and ventral roots
What is the dorsal root?	Spinal root that contains afferent sensory axons
What is the ventral root?	Spinal root that contains efferent motor axons
What makes the spinal cord the opposite of the brain?	White matter on outside, gray matter on inside

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