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Personality Final Exam
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- 1Ego PsychologyLater psychoanalysts shifted attention from id to ego
Freud all about sex and aggression and ego and superego responding to id
“id psychology” - 2Psychosocial DevelopmentAnna Freud – defense mechanisms of the ego
Erikson – important powerful component of personality
Mastering environment
Achieving goals
Establishing identity - 3Object Relations TheoriesPatterns of interpersonal interactions are established in early childhood
Subsequently these play out in adult relationships - 4Object Relations Theory: MahlerNewborn begins life “fused” (identity) with the mother – “symbiosis”
Infant does not recognize a differentiation between itself and its mother
Around 6 months: “separation-individuation” process begins
Child begins to explore more independently
Conflict arises: child is torn between wanting to maintain the bond with mother, and feeling smothered by it – wants to separateIdeally the mother will both provide a stable base and encourage independent exploration
Failure to do so may result in failure to establish a unique identity or will instill separation anxiety in the child
By age 3: child creates “mother-as-object” – stable mental representation of mother that is carried around always
In future mother will always be seen through this filter, as will many others in the person’s life
The core of how you interact with others is established (personality) - 5Attachment Theory“the close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers (usually mother first)
Based on work of Bowlby and Ainsworth
Observed that a clear preference (attachment) for mother at about 6-8 months of age
Separation anxiety observed when they are apart
Will also apply to other close caregivers
Behaviorists attributed the “bond” to the powerful reinforcing even of being fed
mother = a conditioned stimulus associated with nourishment - 6Attachment Theory: Harlowdisagreed, devised his monkey experiments to demonstrate his theory
- 7Attachment Theory: Bowlbyheorized an evolutionary biological basis for this attachment
Infants are “programmed” to emit behaviors (cooing, smiling, clinging) that in turn trigger protective, comforting affection responses from caregivers
Ensures the survival of the infant - 8Attachment Theory: AinsworthObserved that mothers who are sensitive and responsive to their children’s needs evoke more secure attachments
Quality of attachment clearly influenced my mother’s behavior
But also influenced by child’s behavior
Recall the triggering behaviors suggested by Bowlby
Difficult children slow or even impair the attachment process - 9Ainsworth Secure attachmentPlay comfortably with mother present
Visibly upset when she leaves
Quickly calmed by her return
Mother is attentive, responsive, approving
As adults: happy love relationships, trusting, longer lasting relationships - 10Ainsworth Anxious ambivalent attachmentAnxious even when mother is near
Excessively upset when she leaves
Not particularly comforted when she returns
Mothers: inconsistently responsive
As adults: love is obsessive, extreme emotional highs and lows, jealousy; dependency - 11Ainsworth Avoidant attachmentSeek little contact with mother
Not distressed when she leaves
Mothers: distant, emotionally unavailable, rejecting or neglectful
As adults: less accepting of partners’ imperfections; cynical about love; low emotional intimacy; discomfort with sex - 12Psychosocial DevelopmentEgo – establishes secure identity
Inner sense of who we are, makes us unique, feeling of wholeness
“identity crisis”
Depression and confusion of not having a strong sense of identity - 13Psychosocial Development: Erikson’s StagesFreud: personality forms by age 5
Erikson: life span development
“latency period”, BUT:
Start school
Learning to work
Satisfaction from success
Social skills, sharing, cooperation
Disagreement on nature of the conflicts
Freud: sexual
Erikson: social
“fixation”: personality development may be arrested and continue to affect the person through life - 14Infancy (year 1) — Trust vs. MistrustWho will take care of me?
Will they do a good job?
Can I trust them?
Basis for proving the world and people are predictable - 15Early Childhood (yrs. 2–3) — Autonomy vs. Shame and doubtExperimenting with new abilities
Testing their powers – how much of the world do I control?
Basis for feelings of control and competency, self confidence - 16Preschool (yrs 3–5) — Initiative vs. GuiltStart to imitate adults, practice adult tasks
Work together, follow leaders, resolve disputes
Basis for a sense of power in the world – initiative, ambition, goal seeking - 17School age (yrs 5–11) — Industry vs. InferiorityStart comparing themselves to heir age mates
May develop sense of competence and achievement
Basis for sense of value, citizenship - 18Identity vs. Role Confusion (yrs. 12–20)Erikson – most important goal of development
“Who am I?”
“How do others view me?”
Role experimentation
Basis for an integrated sense of private and social self
Must be achieved
If not tends to be shallow and/or unstable
Must have the crisis and emerge with firm sense of self, values
Without exploration or crisis > “identity foreclosure” (moralistic, conventional, no depth to beliefs) - 19Young Adulthood (20’s) — Intimacy vs. IsolationBeginning to connect with others (friends, intimates)
Emotional, growth – caring, nurturing, providing
Basis for close, warm relationships
Or else isolation - 20Adulthood (to 60’s) — Generativity vs. StagnationHave you generated something of value in life?
Or stagnating?
Basis for positively influencing the future - 21Old Age —Integrity vs. DespairStart to separate from life (career, children, hobbies) – preparing to face death
“was it all worth it?”
“did I accomplish most of what I wanted?”
Basis for sense of order and meaning in life - 22Applying EriksonEach stage does not have to be completed perfectly and positively
e.g., healthy mistrust, knowing when to trust or not
Stages not necessarily inflexible or sequential
Individual & cultural differences (e.g., later life occupational identity changes
Woman transitioning from parenting to career - 23Erikson In ConclusionLater applied his work to understanding the identity development of historical figures (e.g., Mahatma Gandhi)
Wanted to understand the social, historical and psychological forces plus accidental circumstances leading to a history-changing personality
“psychohistory”
Erikson’s work embraced by many other disciplines of study (sociology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology)
Psychoanalytic ideas that were acceptable where Freud’s certainly were not - 24The Behavioral Viewpointreaction to Freud
no imaginary constructs
observable behavior & environmental conditions
behavior results from past learning
Person as “machine-like”
Collection of machine-like mechanisms
How do these mechanisms learn?
Response to environmental inputs
“determinism”:
Events are caused by or determined by some prior event
Something that can be understood by basic laws of science
Human behavior is caused in a lawful and scientific manner - 25Classical Conditioning:- neutral stimuli elicit involuntary responses (e.g. fear, sadness, anxiety)
- case of Little Albert & white rat
- loud noise >>> afraid of rat - 26Operant Conditioning:shaped by reinforcement & punishment
- e.g., child’s tantrums
- apply to depressed woman?
:
Reinforcement – consequence that increases likelihood of repeating a behavior
PRIMARY: biological (food, water)
SECONDARY: conditioned (e.g., $$$)
Punishment – consequence that DEcreases likelihood of repeating a behavior
PRIMARY: biological (pain)
SECONDARY: conditioned (take away privilege)
Extinction – behavior stops because no longer being reinforced - 27Positive vs NegativeHAS NOTHING TO DO WITH GOOD OR BAD
Positive: recipient gets something new
Negative: something is taken away - 28Schedules of ReinforcementFrequency and pattern of behavior consequences
Continuous reinforcement – EVERY time
But most behaviors not rewarded every time (often not practical)
Intermittent or Partial reinforcement – periodically given - 29ratio schedulereinforced after a certain number of times of doing the behavior
Fixed – exactly every 5th time
Variable – inconsistent, but averages every 5th time - 30interval scheduleInterval schedule: only reinforced after a certain period of time has passed, no matter how many times the behavior has happened
Also fixed and variable patterns - 31Fixed Ratio ScheduleFixed Ratio Schedule
High rate of responding – with short pauses after each reinforcement
- Knows he wont get rewarded the next time - 32variable Ratio Schedulevariable Ratio Schedule
Even higher rate of response – and with no pauses after reinforcements
e.g., gambling - 33Fixed Interval ScheduleFixed Interval Schedule
Much lower response rate - person knows he wont get rewarded for a while, so less incentive to engage the behavior – hence the scallop pattern - 34Variable Interval ScheduleVariable Interval Schedule
Lower rate of behavior, but no scalloping – consistent and regular behavior – has no idea when he will be rewarded - 35Schedules of Reinforcement: Impact on Future RespondingContinuous reinforcement:
Good for establishing new behavior – frequent pairing of behavior and reward
But very easily extinguished
Variable schedule slower to establish but much less vulnerable to extinction
Begin with continuous, then switch to variable schedule to maintain - 36The Behavioral ViewpointBut what about free will??
Behaviorist: people are not free to choose behavior
Basic assumptions:
Must be explained by influence by the environment – no internal processes
Built on controlled laboratory research - 37Behaviorism: Assumption #1Physical objects in a physical universe
Determined by same physical laws
Just like the ball tossed in the air
Attitudes, beliefs, feelings, thoughts are irrelevant in explaining the person
Thoughts, feelings are also just behaviors
You did not freely choose to be here – your environment brought you here
All of these things are determined solely by environmental factors
Must be scientific to be credible
All behavior is determined by general laws of learning
Therefore “theories of personality” are irrelevant – not needed
Need only the laws of learning
Situational specificity
If environment is cause (not stable internal processes) then behavior must vary by situation
Different conditions of reward and punishment
What about psychopathology??
Not seen as an illness of the mind
Caused by maladaptive environmental conditions
So therapy not directed at internal conflicts
Need to create new learning - 38behaviourism assumption #2Understanding comes from controlled laboratory research
If behavior is environmentally caused, need to study by manipulating variables experimentally
Must only study observable things
Accurately measurable environmental and behavioral variables
Behaviorist shuns other fields that look at id, superego, thoughts, extraversion, needs, etc
But there are challenges:
Impractical or unethical to manipulate certain variables with humans
Often too complex or hard to measure in humans
Solution is to study simple responses in animals (rats, pigeons)
Generalizability???? - 39behavioursim evaluationMajor Contributions:
Committed to systematic research
Improvement on psychoanalytic predecessors
They only theorized
Major Contributions:
Drew psychology to external variables
Ws previously all internal, intrapsychic processes
Observations were in artificial environments
Behaviorist emphasized need to understand the person in his natural setting
Major Limitations:
Based in animal research
Missing out on uniquely human abilities
Language
Reasoning about he past
Consider future possibilities
They ignore the things that make us human (generalizability question) - 40Downside of BehaviorismPassive reactors to the environment – fully determined, no free will
Ignores basic human qualities
Social cognitive theory (1950s) arose from this - 41Social-Cognitive Theory – BasicsBegan as “social learning theory”
Thought processes should be central to personality theory
Cognition develops socially
Result of social interactions
Psychoanalysis overemphasizes unconscious forces and influence of early childhood
Much cognition is unconscious, but conscious thinking processes are of greater importance
Early childhood is important BUT people develop and grow across the life span
Behaviorism: controlled by rewards and punishments
But people do have some control
Capacity to think – can motivate and direct action
“human agency” – people play an active role in own development
Introduced observational learning - 42Social Cognition: Theory of Person“What is a person?”
Can reason using language
Reason about past, present and future
Reflection on the self
But psychoanalysts: animalistic forces
Behaviorist: machines, based on animal research
Trait theory: Big Five in animals
Social cognitive: human personality must be based in unique human qualities
Critical implication:
People have the ability to overcome environment and impulses to gain control over their lives - 43Social-Cognitive Theory: Structures of PersonalityCompetencies and skills
Behavior differences may be due to skill differences
e.g., introverted behavior: lack social skills??
e.g., conscientious: high cognitive skill, can meet social norms
Especially interested in problem solving and coping competencies
Competence = ways of thinking about problems + skills in executing solutions
Implications:
Competencies may only be relevant in some situations
Person competent in some contexts but not in others
Contrast with trait theory
Competencies have been learned, so new ones can be developed
Remaining structures based in how we think about he world:
Beliefs/expectancies
Evaluative standards
goals
2. Expectancies
Primary determinant of our actions
How will others respond?
What will our rewards and punishments be?
Can we cope with stresses?
Expectancies vary across contexts
Essence of per - 44processes of personalitySocial-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality
Reciprocal determinism
New type of learning: observational learning (modeling)
Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality
Reciprocal determinism:
Must consider person, environment and the behavior in any cause/effect relationship
What causes what?
Behaviorist: environment >> behavior
Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality
2-way street, all cause each other
Conversation:
Environment > behavior
Personality > environment
Personality > behavior > environment
Behavior/environment > personality
B
P
E
Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality
Bandura: “internal vs external” debate is meaningless
All causal relationships are a system, all affecting each other mutually
We select situations and are shaped by them
Social-Cognitive Theory: Processes of Personality
Observational Learning (modeling):
Looking to understand acquisition of new skills (via observational learning)
Exerting control over behaviors and emotions (self regulation) - 45processes of personalityBehaviorist: we learn new skills by trial and error (shaping)
But what about learning to drive a car?
Sometimes errors too costly
Also takes a long time
Bandura: you actually knew how to drive a car fairly well before you got started (observation)
Benefit of cognitive capacity – learn quickly by observation
Not just exact mimicking, but learning general behavioral concepts
Models may be directly observed but media is important (e.g. violence on TV)
Acquisition vs performance
acquire new behavior via observation, but will we actually perform it?
Bobo doll experiment
Conditions: no response, reward, punishment
Likelihood of performing was related to the condition
So the observation of the consequences to the model seems to affect performance of the behavior but not acquisition
Bandura suggested children actually learning emotional responses – sympathize with model
“vicarious conditioning”
Numerous experiments: observation of a conditioned fear response will lead to acquisition of that fear
Often long–lasting, intense and generalized - 46depressionSetting goals too high – failure
Leads to depressed mood
Leads to undervaluing accomplishments
Misery
Worthlessness
purposelessness
Misjudge own performance
Distorted memory
Standards too high – all is failure
Berate own performance even in face of praise
Goals /standards higher than perceived self-efficacy - 47phobiasDirect contact, inappropriate generalization, observational
Extinction prevented by avoidance
Bandura: media to blame
Maintained by negative reinforcement - 48Aggressive Behavior (causes):Aggressive Behavior (causes):
Observation of others
Direct experience of reinforcement
Training - 49Aggressive Behavior (maintenance):Aggressive Behavior (maintenance):
Enjoy inflicting harm (pos reinforcement)
Avoiding consequences of NOT fighting (neg reinforcement)
Punishment for NOT being aggressive
Living up to personal standards (self reinforcement)
Observation of rewards to others - 50Social-Cognitive Theory: TreatmentBehaviors continue because they serve a purpose
Change is very difficult
Goal is self-regulation
Specific behavior change
Generalization of change
Relapse prevention
Create change (climb tall ladder)
Generalize the change to more and more relevant situations (flying, tall buildings)
Bandura:
Overt (vicarious) modeling
Observe a model > less anxiety
Covert (cognitive) modeling
Visualize a model
Enactive mastery
Perform actual behavior, fear is reduced - 51humanistic psychology: main theoriesabraham maslow, carl rogers
key concept: self actualization
-believed tat people wanted to grow
-maslow studied the healthiest, best adjusted people - 52maslow- self actualization-what motivates there healthy people?
-motivation: reducing tension by satisfying deficits states (things that are lacking)
-deficiency (D needs) requirements for physiological surveyor orsaftey - 53d needs (basic characteristics)1. absence breeds illness
2. presence prevents illness
3. restoration cures illness
4. free choice, it is preferred
5. inactive, seemingly absent in the healthy person - 54metamotivationgrowth tendencies
- 55Being needs (B needs)from drive to self actualize, fulfill potential-enhance, enrich life
-D needs take precedence, if not met, presents work towards B needs
-uniquely studied highly healthy people
- people "fulfilling themselves and doing the best they're capable of doing"
-aquaintances, celebrities- characteristics, habits, abilities
-not scientific, not standardized - 56marlows hierarchy of needstop to bottom:
1. self actualization needs
2. aesthetic needs (symmetry, order, beauty)
3. cognitive needs ( to know, understand and explore)
4. esteem needs (to achieve, be competent, gain approval/ recognition)
5. belongingness needs
6. safety needs
7. physiological needs - 57maslow: self actualization peak experiences-intensification of an experience- "transcendence of self"
-often called mystical or religious
-maybe just everyday activities
-as one with the world
-life altering
-no one fits all characteristics
-but they are not perfect (wasteful moments, may be vain, lose temper)
-a process not an end, requires effort to maintain
-familial, economic, political, educational impeeds the process - 58Maslow: Self actualization-experience fully, vividly, concentration
-making growth choices, not fear based
-develop sense of self, honesty
-courage, wise life judgements
-recognize ongoing process
-have peak experiences
-eliminates ego defences - 59Maslow: Self actualization-less than 1% of population
-criticized as too simplistic- ignores hard work, pain, tragedy
-think far less possible that maslow thought (can only strengthen the ego) - 60Maslow: Self actualization-also too american focused
-personality based in self esteem
-anxiety and depression seen as failures of this
-But Japan, China, deemphasize this not autonomy but collective
-also male focused - 61Maslow: Self actualization men vs. womenmen: more about accomplishment
women: interpersonal connections - 62Humanism : Carl Rogers- we believe that what we see is the objective reality
"i do not react to some absolute reality but to my perception of reality"
-what we see is the private world of experience - 63phenomenological field-sum total of our perceptions
-constructed using both outer reality and inner goals, beliefs, needs
-we are not consciously aware of this construction of reality
- rogers based his work on the idea that this construction is a reflection of personal needs - 64psychological distressalienation, detachment- my experiences don't stem from authentic self
- outside pressures to supress>> detachment from self - 65Rogers, inner values and insitutionsgoal is to find match between experiences and inner values
-our nature is essentially positive
-drive toward personal growth
institutions: -religion (inherently evil)
-psychoanalysis (agressive, sexual)
-when functioning freely, we are positive , mature - 66Rogers: The "self"the piece of phenomenological experience known as "I" or "Me"
- actual and ideal (what we would most like to be) - 67self actualizationpersonal growth is fundamental
-simple to complex, dependence to independence, rigity to change
-reduction of tension is part, but also pleasure, satisfaction from enhancing the organism - 68evidence that self-actualization predicts-self esteem
-health
-self reported self actualization
-happiest when pursuing congurent goals - 69seek self consistency and congruence self and experience- we develop a value system, including a valuation of the self
-our values and functions work to preserve this system
-want to behave consistent with this system, even if unrewarding
-also strive for congruence between self and our experience - 70congruence-open genuine match between self and own actions
-we are driven to seek congruent experiences - 71anxiety results from incongruencemust defend the self>> defensive processes
- may block some experiences from conscious awareness - 72subception defences distortionsubception: recognize threat before concious awareness
defences: denial- simialr to freud
distortion: more common
-conciously aware,but distorted to be consistent with self
-not bad experience, but any disrepency - 73donahue and colleagues (1993)-some highly variable, others very consistent
-cosistent= coherent, integrated self
-inconsistent= specialized role identities>> fliexibility, adaptibility
-high variable correlated with anxiety, depression, low self esteem
-conflictual realtionships with parents, less satisfaction with relationships and careers - 74self is fragmented-but need to consider how you feel about the variability
-if not comfortable, person needs to work toward unified self image
-who do you want to be, behave consistently - 75why is consistency so important?-basic need for "positive regard"
to be accepted and respected by others - 76very powerful need-can derail efforts to grow
-can lose touch with true feelings and values
-become detached from the true self
-infants need positive regard, parents tell us what is good and expected. Ideally parents give unconditional positive regard but most often conditional on certain behaviour, standards - 77Roger, no need for ____ & _____motives, drives
person is basically self actualizing but may be blocked but need for positive regard
-learn to deny or distort - 78george kellyPhD in psych 1931
-travelling psych clinic in kansas
-started to notice that the complaints also said something about the teachers
ex. someone laying head down during your presentation - 79Kelly; referral says "student is lazy"would look at both the childs behaviour and the teachers way of perceiving
- 80Kelly; teacher is forming a construction of the students behaviour-very different view of the teachers compaint
-by looking at both teacher and student, opens up a wide range of new potential solutions - 81Kelly; there is no absolute, objective truth-events are only meaningful in relation to ways they are interpreted by the observer
- 82Kelly; personal constructs- how we percieve, interpret, conceptualize
-differences form the basis of personality
-produce emotions, goals, behaviours - 83Kelly similarties to Roger-both claim that we construct a view of our world and respond just to that view
-kelly dug deeper
-constuct= ideas or categories to interpret the world
-some are universal, others are much more individual - 84Kelly; view of the personscientists and people are doing the same thing- predicting events
-we develop ideas to help predict significant life events
-and to predict how to achieve these outcomes - 85implications1. people are orientated towards the future
2. we can use different theories to make different kinds of predictions
-think about our environment
-rethink our usual ways of understanding
-develop alternative formulations
-new strategies for coping - 86Behaviourists KellyB-people passively respond to the environment (lack free will)
K-we think actively about the world and about our own thinking
-can judge our way of thinking and change if we choose
-gives us free will - 87Kelly; theory of personality (structure)always trying to make sense of events around us, need to use pre existing knowledge to do so.
-look for similarities between events
-constucts describe not only the target person, but also tell us about the person doing the describing
-big goal of constructs is to be able to predict events (based on constructs learned from past events) - 88negative emotions; anxiety-events are outside your range of convince- doesn't fir into your pre existing view/ cannot predict
-may choose to broaden the construct to fit in the new experience
-reduces anxiety
-ex. find self acting in a selfish way
you could expand construct to include this behaviour OR could restrict "caring person" so that it only counts with close friends - 89threat; negative emoitionwhen you become more aware of major change to core constructs
ex. jealousy
current: secure, good self esteem but if something happens, sudden imminent change to constructs ( alone, rejected) - 90Kelly;psychopathologytherapy: help person to change constructs systems leading to improved prediction
-some constructs replaced, new ones added, some tightened, some loosened, change permeability - 91cognitive psychology: schemas`similar to personal constructs
-used to make sense of the world, guides info processing
-filter for all incoming sensations for interpretation, understanding and storage - 92the self schemainternal definition to filter information about ourselves
-self schema and resultant emotional and behavioural responses determine personality
-we bossess mulitple selves for different contexts
-in each situation a different self schema enters working memory creating the current "working self concept" - 93self maintainingbiased attention, recall to be consistent with schemas
- 94self schema: maintenancenot just passive processing- processing is motivated by self -maintenance
-self enhancement and self verification
-not surprising that people are biased to see selves in positive light - 95self verification motivewe pull for feedback that confirms self concept
ex. extraverted person - 96maintenance-we tend to seek relationships with people who see us as we see ourself
BUT some evidence that inconsistent info can lead to physical health problems
-positive events can be stressful if disrupt negative self concept - 97negative self conceptwe still tend to look for self confirmation
common in depression - 98clinical applicationsmost popular, empirically supported
-several common assumptions to CT - 99clinical applications 1-51. cognitions (attributions, beliefs, expectations, memories) determining feelings and behaviours
2. important cognitions often specific to the situation
3. psychopathology arises from distorted cognitive interpretations (self, others, world)
4. distorted thoughts create feelings, behaviours, which can create more faulty cognitions (creates cycle to maintain and strengthen schemas)
5. collorbarative effort to uncover, challenge and correct distorted cognitions - 100schemas in cognitive therapyneed to process information quickly and efficiently
-rapid, automatic, mostly unconcious
-not always rational or logical
-normal to use schemas- constantly doing so
- - 101black and white thinking"if he forgets my birthday he can't possibly love me
- 102overgeneralizationshe hates me, i bet everyone hates me
- 103selective abstractiononly see the bad things that happen
- 104catastophizingthink about their worst possible outcome, everything is the end of the world
- 105excessive self refrencecertain everyone noticing you (ex.social phobia)
- 106schemas and automatic thoughtstherapy: identify distortions in thoughts/ interpretations
-gather evidence to support and dispute
-create interpretations based on full consideration of evidence
-results in change in emotional and behavioural response
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- Final Exams Fichas sobre Personality Final Exam, creado por Rebecca Bishop el 29/11/2016.
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- Rebecca Bishop
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