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Biology exam.

Elizabeth McQuie Inglés 200 fichas

Fichas del conjunto (200)

  1. 1Define transcription and translation1. Transcription - double stranded DNA is photocopied within the nucleus, creating a single stranded mRNA.
    2. Translation - ribosomes turn mRNA into proteins.
  2. 2Define heterochromatinHighly condensed, tightly coiled DNA which is inactive (not reproducing). Dark staining.
  3. 3Define euchromatinLoosely coiled, light staining DNA which is actively reproducing.
  4. 4Describe components of cytosolIntracellular fluid making up 55% of a cell. 75-90% water, 10-25% dissolved and suspended ions, proteins, lipids, acids, ATP and waste products.
  5. 5Define cilia structure and functionShort, hairlike projections extending from the surface of a cell. Function is movement of substances across surface. Found in respiratory tract.
  6. 6What is Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?Continuous with nuclear envelope. Site of protein synthesis. Studded with ribosomes.
  7. 7What is Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?Site of fatty acid and steroid synthesis. Contains enzymes.
  8. 8Describe glandular epitheliumExocrine - secretion into a lumen or hollow organ or onto body surface (e.g. sweat, mucus)
    Endocrine - release hormones directly into bloodstream
  9. 9Where is simple squamous epithelium found?Found in areas of absorption and diffusion such as lining of internal body cavities (mesothelium) and heart and blood vessels (endothelium)
  10. 10Where is stratified squamous epithelium found?Found in areas of mechanical and chemical stress such as lining of some regions of the gut, and comprises the outer layer of skin.
  11. 11What does cuboidal epithelium make up?Comprises glands.
  12. 12Where is simple columnar epithelium found?Lines stomach, intestines, gallbladder, uterine tubes. Often has surface modifications such as villi or microvilli.
    (Stratified columnar rare - only found in some large ducts such as salivary gland)
  13. 133 properties of connective tissueCells - to synthesise, store and defend
    Fibres (extracellular) - collagen, elastic and reticular
    Matrix - Amorphous Ground Substance (AGS)
  14. 14KEY TERM - BLASTImmature cells. Synthesise and secrete extracellular matrix in connective tissue. Divide and differentiate into mature cells.
  15. 15KEY TERM - CYTEMature cells - also known as caretaker cells.
  16. 16Define AGM and componentsAmorphous Ground Substance - cellular matrix in CT. Made up of:
    fluid (blood)
    semifluid (cartilage)
    gelatinous (most others)
    hard (bone)
    Function is to secure CT cells and fibres within extracellular matrix.
  17. 17List the five parts of the epidermis and their makeup.Stratum corneum - more in thick skin, continually shed, keratinised squamous
    Stratum lucidium - thin layer
    Stratum granulosum
    Stratum spinosum - main cellular epidermal region
    Stratum basale - organised columnar cells, basement membrane
    Deepest layers contain Merkel cells, and sensory neuron extensions detect pain and temperature
  18. 18What is the papillary dermis made of and where is it located?Loosely packed collagen fibres. Pushes up on epidermis.
  19. 19What is the reticular dermis made of?Densely packed collagen fibres.
  20. 20What is the hypodermis made of?Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and subcutaneous fat, sensory receptors
  21. 21List four layers of the cutaneous membraneEpidermis, papillary dermis, reticular dermis, hypodermis
  22. 22What do melanocytes do and where are they found?Produce melanin to protect DNA from UV damage. Scattered between basal keratinocytes in stratum basale.
  23. 23What are globulins responsible for and how much of the blood do they make up?36-38% of plasma, a group of proteins responsible for vitamin transport. Alpha and beta produced in liver, gamma produced by immune system = immunoglobulins = antibodies
  24. 24Define medialCloser to middle of body
  25. 25What is the basal layer of skin made of and what happens there?Single layer of squamous cells called basal keratinocytes. Has melanocytes. Site of mitosis.
  26. 26What is the difference between anabolic and catabolic?Anabolic = formation and growth
    Catabolic = destruction and break-down
  27. 27What are Volkmann's canals?Small channels in bone which transmit blood vessels from periosteum into bone.
  28. 28What is an osteon? - Haversian systemBone matrix deposited in rings around blood vessels. Blood vessels run in Haversian canals.
  29. 29Define periosteumTough membrane covering external surface of bone
  30. 30Define endosteumLining of medullary cavity
  31. 31Define medullary cavityHollow spaces in diaphysis of long bones, houses bone marrow.
  32. 32Define articular cartilageCovering of epiphyses. Provides movement in joints and decreases friction.
  33. 33Define metaphysisPart of the growth plate found between diaphysis and epiphysis
  34. 34Define epiphysisSpongy ends of bones
  35. 35Define diaphysisShaft of long bone made of compact, solid, dense bone
  36. 36Define afterloadThe resistance the left ventricle must overcome to circulate blood around the body.
  37. 37Define preload and give another nameThe blood in the ventricle after ventricular filling (diastole) ready to be pushed out into arteries . AKA End Diastolic Volume.
  38. 38Define ossification and describe two typesFormation of bone.
    Intramembranous: forms from connective tissue
    Endochondral: forms in hyaline cartilage
  39. 39What is the formula used to determine cardiac output?Heart rate x stroke volume
  40. 40Define proximalCloser to body
  41. 41Define distalFurther from body
  42. 42Define diastoleThe point of minimal pressure when ventricular walls are filling with blood and arteries are at their lowest pressure.
  43. 43Define perfusionThe distribution of oxygenated blood to tissues
  44. 44Define ventilationMovement of gases in the lungs
  45. 45Colour and oxygen state of arterial blood. Order of flow.Red, oxygenated.
    Pick up blood from lungs > pulmonary veins > left atrium > left ventricle > aorta > rest of body to deliver oxygen.
  46. 46Define stroke volume + normal value and formula to calculateVolume ejected per beat from each ventricle. Approx 70ml.
    SV = EDV - ESV
  47. 47Define adipocyteFat cell - lipid storage
  48. 48Where is albumin found and what is its role in the body?Makes up 54-60% of plasma, important for transport of hormones and regulation of osmotic pressure.
  49. 49What is the appendicular skeleton made of? How many bones?Upper and lower limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles. 126 bones.
  50. 50Define chondroblastCartilage matrix locate near edge of bone on the outside
  51. 51Describe the location and function of osteocytesLocated in internal lacunae, make up 90% of bone cells. Initiate mineralisation, respond to bone strain, regulate bone formation, repair bone matrix.
  52. 52Describe the location and function of osteoblasts.Bone-forming cells found in edge of bone which may become osteocytes or osteoclasts. Synthesis of osteoid/unmineralised bone.
  53. 53What are osteogenic cells and what do they become?Stem cells derived from embryonic fibroblasts. Some become osteoblasts.
  54. 54Define ECM and state functionExtracellular matrix. Provides medium for substance exchange through connective tissue.
  55. 55Colour and oxygen state of venous blood. Order of flow.Appears blue, deoxygenated.
    From around body > vena cava > right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary arteries > lungs to pick up blood.
  56. 56Define lacunae and state location of Howship's lacunaeA hole, cavity or depression in bone or cartilage. Howship's lacunae found along the edge of bone.
  57. 57Describe concentric and interstitial lamellaeLamellae are rings of bone. Concentric are layers in rings, interstitial are old, partially removed osteons.
  58. 58Describe osteoclasts, how they work, and where they come fromPhagocytic cells which break down and dissolve bone. They release lysosomal enzymes to digest bone matrix. Derived from fusion of bone marrow monocytes.
  59. 59Describe the process of endochondral ossificationCalcifies from inside out.
    Length: chondrocyte division within matrix
    Width: formation of new cartilage at edges by chondroblasts.
  60. 60Describe the 4 step process of intramembranous ossification1. Mesenchymal cells - osteogenic cells - osteoblasts
    2. Osteoblasts deposit osteoid - osteocytes - calcification
    3. Form trabecular - osteoclasts form medullary spaces
    4. Mesenchyme - fibroblasts - periosteum
  61. 61What are chondrocytes and where are they located?Chondroblasts trapped by matrix secreted within lacunae.
  62. 62What is elastic cartilage made of? Where is it found in the body and what is its function?Elastic fibres - less dense cartilage. Located in eternal ear, auditory tube, epiglottis. Provides flexible support while maintaining shape.
  63. 63What is fibrocartilage made of? Where is it found in body and what is its function?Made of extensive parallel bundles of collagen in lacunae, found in interstitial discs. Resists compression and absorbs shock.
  64. 64What is hyaline cartilage made of? What else is it called, where is it found, what does it do?Made of equal parts collagen and elastin. AKA articular cartilage. Located over ends of bones in moveable joints to prevent friction.
  65. 65What does GAG stand for, what is it made of, what does it make up?Sulphated glycosaminoglycan. Chondroitin sulphate. Matrix of cartilage which retains water (rubbery).
  66. 66Define trabeculaeLatticework of thin plates of bone. Spaces are filled with red bone marrow. AKA spongy bone or cancellous bone.
  67. 67What is the axial skeleton made up of? How many bones?Skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum, sacrum. Forms central axis. 80 bones.
  68. 68List the main functions of the skeletal system- support
    - protection
    - movement
    - mineral storage
    - fat and energy storage
    - haemopoiesis (blood cell production)
  69. 69Define lateralFurther from middle of body
  70. 70Define diffusionMovement of CO2 and O2 between alveoli and blood
  71. 71Describe 3 types of jointsFibrous: immovable
    Cartilaginous: slightly movable
    Synovial: freely movable
  72. 72Define keratinocyteSquamous cells of epidermis
  73. 73What is the stratum corneum made of?Dead squamous cells with no nuclei. Continuously shed and regenerated.
  74. 74List the two types of bone growth, where they occur, and at what ages they occurInterstitial (length): birth to 18-25yo, occurs in epiphyseal plate (growth plate)
    Appositional (width): occurs in concentric lamellae - osteons
  75. 75How are blood types determined?Letter (A, B, AB, O) = molecule/antigen presented on RBC surface
    +/- = Rhesus (Rh) factor, Rh antigen presence on RBC surface
  76. 76Define End Systolic VolumeESV = leftover blood in ventricles after ventricular contraction (systole)
  77. 77Define systolePoint of maximum pressure when ventricular walls contact to send a wave of blood through the arteries.
  78. 78What is mRNA?Messenger Ribonucleic Acid. Translates DNA to ribosomes in RER.
  79. 79What are fibrinogen and prothrombin, where are they found, and what role do they play in the body?Make up 4-7% of plasma. Responsible for coagulation, contains clotting proteins.
  80. 80Explain the 5 events of respiration1. Breathing/ventilation: moving air into and out of the lungs
    2. External respiration: exchanging gases between the air in the lungs and the blood
    3. Gas transport by blood: transport of oxygen to the body cells and the return of carbon dioxide
    4. Internal respiration: exchanging gases between the blood and the body cells
    5. Cellular respiration: using the oxygen in cell processes and the production of carbon dioxide
  81. 81Order of parts of the respiratory tract from top to bottom- nasal cavity
    - pharynx
    - larynx
    - trachea
    - bronchi
    - bronchiole
    - alveoli
  82. 82What is the function of the nasal cavity? How does it achieve this?Warms and moistens air and traps small particles. Has hair and cilia.
  83. 83What is the function of the pharynx?Allows conduction of air to trachea.
  84. 84What is the function of the larynx?Houses vocal chords essential for speech.
  85. 85What is the function of the trachea?Allows air to pass through neck into thorax. Has cilia.
  86. 86What is the function of bronchi?Continually branch into smaller airways. Have cilia.
  87. 87What is the function of bronchioles?Small branches of bronchi which supply air to alveoli. Walls contain small muscle.
  88. 88What is the function of alveoli?Where gas exchange occurs.
  89. 89As you go further down the respiratory tract, air passageways decrease in size but increase in number....
  90. 90Describe the epithelium of the nasal cavityPseudostratified columnar epithelium with cilia for movement of air and mucous, and goblet cells for mucous production. Ideal for protection and humidification.
  91. 91Describe the epithelium of the pharynxStratified squamous epithelium protects from chemical attack and abrasion.
  92. 92Describe the epithelium of the larynxPseudostratified columnar epithelium with cilia for movement of mucous, and goblet cells for mucous production. Ideal for protection and humidification.
  93. 93Describe the epithelium of the bronchiolesSimple cuboidal
  94. 94Describe the structure of alveoliGas exchange surface is delicate simple squamous epithelium. Distance between air and blood in adjacent capillary less than 1mm.
  95. 95What are seromucous glands, where are they found?In submucosa of respiratory tract. Produce watery mucous secretion to humidify air and combine with goblet cell secretions to trap fine particles.
  96. 96List four defence mechanisms of the respiratory system- nasal filtration
    - mucociliary escalator
    - alveolar macrophages
    - cough/sneeze reflex
  97. 97Describe circumstances where respiratory defence mechanisms may be impededChronic irritation from smoking changes the epithelium to unciliated squamous cells. No cilia leads to a pooling of mucous, increasing risk and incidence of respiratory infections.
  98. 98What is the respiratory membrane?The combination of the alveolar wall (1 cell thick), the capillary wall and the basement membrane that lies between them.
  99. 99Define diffusion (respiratory system)Passive movement of molecules (in this case oxygen and carbon dioxide) from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
  100. 100List some factors that influence the rate of diffusion- temperature (warmer = faster)
    - surface area (larger = faster)
    - concentration gradient (higher = faster)
    - size of particles (smaller = faster)
    - diffusion medium (solid = slow, liquid = faster, gas = fastest)
    - thickness of barrier (thinner = faster)
  101. 101What part of the body would cover a tennis court in surface area?Alveoli
  102. 102How is oxygen transported in the blood? Why is this means of transport necessary?Oxygen doesn't dissolve well in water so it binds to the haemoglobin found in RBCs.
  103. 103Structure of haemoglobin molecules relating to oxygen transport4 heme groups with iron cores. The iron core is what oxygen binds to (oxyhaemoglobin)
  104. 104How many haemoglobin molecules are in one erythrocyte?Approximately 270 million.
  105. 105What attributes to the different colours of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood?Oxygen changes the shape of haemoglobin proteins when they bind, causing it to appear bright red. When no oxygen is bound, it appears blue.
  106. 106Why might it be useful to decrease the affinity of oxygen to haemoglobin when temperature increases and pH decreases?Increased temperature and decreased pH suggests higher levels of carbon dioxide. Decreasing affinity of oxygen to haemoglobin will make it easier for oxygen to detach from haemoglobin at the tissues.
  107. 107Define oxygen saturationThe fraction of oxygen-saturated haemoglobin relative to total haemoglobin in the blood.
  108. 108Describe carbon monoxide poisoningCarbon monoxide (CO) binds to haemoglobin with a 200x greater affinity than oxygen, at the same binding site. This prevents oxygen from binding and tissues become hypoxic.
  109. 109State three ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood- dissolved in solution
    - buffered with water as carbonic acid
    - bound to proteins (particularly haemoglobin)
  110. 110What causes the affinity of oxygen for haemoglobin to increase?- higher concentration of oxygen in the lungs
    - lower temperature
    - higher pH
  111. 111What causes the affinity of oxygen for haemoglobin to decrease?- lower concentration of oxygen in the lungs
    - higher temperature
    - lower pH
  112. 112Principles of gas pressureThe pressure of a gas relates to the volume that it is contained in. The same amount of gas in a small container exerts higher pressure that that in a larger container.
  113. 113How much air is exchanged in a breath during quiet breathing?500ml
  114. 114How much air is exchanged in a breath during forceful breathing?3300ml in males, 1900ml in females
  115. 115Describe the passive and active movements of the chest cavity during quiet breathingInhalation: diaphragm actively contracts (moves down), rib muscles contract, rib cage expands
    Exhalation: diaphragm passively relaxes (bounces back up), rib muscles relax, rib cage goes back to normal size
  116. 116Describe the movements of the chest cavity during forceful breathingInhalation: diaphragm contracts, rib muscles contract, rib cage expands, accessory inspiratory muscles contract, causing further elevation of the ribs
    Exhalation: diaphragm relaxes, rib muscles relax, accessory expiratory muscles contract to cause depression of the ribs, accessory expiratory muscles in abdomen contract to force the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity
  117. 117List 3 respiratory accessory muscles1. Sternocleidomastoid (elevates sternum)
    2. Scalenes group (elevate upper ribs)
    3. Pectoralis major
  118. 118Name and describe the two principle respiratory muscles1. External intercostals, interchondral part of internal intercostals (also elevates rib)
    2. Diaphragm (also elevates lower ribs)
  119. 119Define and describe pleura and its two layers and function during inhalationSerous membrane forming closed sacs around lungs. Visceral pleura adheres to lung, parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity, thin film of fluid sticks two together.
    As the chest cavity pulls outward and the lungs pull inward a negative pressure is created - the pleura acts as a vacuum to keep lungs adherent to chest wall
  120. 120Define pneumothorax and explain its treatmentAir gets into pleural space, negative pressure lost, lung collapses. A chest tube is attached to drainage device to prevent air and fluid from reentering pleural space.
  121. 121Define and list values for: 1. Tidal volume 2. Inspiratory reserve volume 3. Expiratory reserve volume 4. Residual volume 5. Vital capacity 6. Inspiratory capacity 7. Functional residual capacity 8. Total lung capacity1. Amount of air in one breath during normal quiet breathing
    2. Air that can be forcibly inhaled
    3. Air that can be forcibly exhaled
    4. Amount of air always left in lungs, even after forceful exhalation
    5. Maximum amount of air to be exhaled after maximum inhalation. Equal to sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume.
    6. Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume
    7. Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
    8. Inspiratory capacity + functional residual capacity
  122. 122Why do we have a residual volume in our lungs?To keep lungs semi-inflated to increase compliance
  123. 123Define compliance (respiratory system)Measure of the ability of lungs to stretch and expand
  124. 124How much does arterial P(partial pressure)CO2 have to rise to trigger the respiratory rate to double?10%
  125. 125What level do oxygen levels need to drop to before stimulating respiration?60mmHg
  126. 126Which two parts of the brain control breathing?Pons and medulla in brain stem
  127. 127List the 5 special sensesTaste, vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell.
  128. 128In basic terms, what do the 5 special senses depend on?Hearing & equilibrium: bending of a sensory hair
    Taste & smell: chemical binding to a sensory hair
    Vision: reaction to light (photosensation)
  129. 129What two types of receptors are used in the sensory system?Specialised neurons and receptor cells that synapse with neurons
  130. 130What do dendrites of specialised neurons do to chemicals in the sensory system?Bind chemicals (in smell and taste) producing a depolarisation of the cell.
  131. 131Where are olfactory receptors located? Outline the process of smells being detected.Nose. Mucous dissolves chemicals in the nose, sensory neurons stimulated by change in chemical concentrations (odourants), odourants interact with olfactory receptors, these neurons synapse in the olfactory tract, sensation is delivered to the olfactory cortex, hypothalamus and limbic system. Cerebrum then interprets signals as a type of smell.
  132. 132Why do smells trigger memories?The chemical signals from odourants are sent to the hypothalamus and limbic system.
  133. 133How many olfactory receptors do we have in our nose? How many odourant molecules does it take to trigger an olfactory receptor?10-20 million.
    4.
  134. 134What is the function of olfactory cilia?Surfaces contain receptor proteins. They sense smells and relay the information to the olfactory bulb.
  135. 135Describe sensory adaptationAKA habituation. Chemical can only stimulate receptors for limited
    time. After this time the receptors fatigue and stop responding to chemical so you can no longer smell the odour.
  136. 136Define gustationThe sense of taste
  137. 137How do tastebuds work?Tastebuds are chemoreceptors with gustatory receptors on them. Saliva breaks down chemicals from food and drink and they are sensed by the gustatory receptors and sent to the CNS.
  138. 138What are the four primary tastebuds? What is the 5th basic taste?Sweet, sour, salty, bitter. Umami = pleasant taste.
  139. 139How do different tastebuds detect different tastes?Salty and sour gustatory receptors directly open ion channels, triggering depolarisation. Sweet, bitter and umami receptors stimulate G proteins which use second messengers to send action potentials. Spicy foods activate pain receptors.
  140. 140Number, structure and lifetime of tastebudsBabies have 10,000 tastebuds, adults have 5000 tastebuds, each containing 40-100 receptor cells. Each has slender microvilli into surrounding fluids through narrow opening (taste pore) of tastebud. Each tastebud only survives 10 days.
  141. 141Why do older people find their food to be bland and unappetising?As we age, the amount of tastebuds and olfactory receptors we have decreases dramatically. Taste and smell are linked.
  142. 142What sense might damage to cranial nerves affect?Gustation
  143. 143Describe structure and function of hair cells in hearingLocated within inner ear, protected from external environment, sensitive to mechanical stimulation. External force on the hair cell stimulates a change in the plasma membrane and the release of chemical transmitters. This mechanism provides information about the direction and strength of the stimuli.
  144. 144What are different receptor types and different parts of the inner ear responsible for?Receptor - rotation, gravity, linear acceleration
    Inner ear - low and high frequency sounds
  145. 145Describe the functional differences between the outer, middle and inner earsOuter: collects sound waves and directs them towards the inner ear, protection
    Middle: air-filled chamber connected to pharynx, eardrum amplifies sound. Site of infections.
    Inner: contains sensory organs for hearing and balance, receives amplified sound waves from middle ear, where hair cells are located
  146. 146How does normal hearing work? 4 steps1. Sound waves move through the ear canal and strike the eardrum.
    2. Eardrum and the ossicles within the middle ear vibrate.
    3. The vibrations move through fluid in cochlea and cause the tiny hair cells in the cochlea to move. Hair cells detect the movement and change it into chemical signals for the auditory nerve.
    4. Auditory nerve sends the information to the brain as electrical impulses where they are interpreted as sound.
  147. 147What are the names for the 3 bones in the middle ear? (Hammer, anvil, stirrup)Malleus, incus, stapes.
  148. 148Define conductive deafness and list causesIssue with the middle ear, between tympanic membrane and oval window. Excess wax, trapped water in external ear, scarring or perforation of tympanic membrane, immobility of ear ossicles (fluid or tumour)
  149. 149Define nerve deafness and list causesIssue with cochlea or along auditory pathway. Damage to receptors. 20-20,000Hz in children but hearing loss later, neural damage to cochlear branch of Nerve VIII, caused by loud noises or pathogenic infections.
  150. 150How does a bionic ear work? 4 steps1. Sound processor captures sounds and converts to digital code
    2. Processor transmits code through coil to implant just under skin
    3. Implant converts code to electrical impulses, sends to electrode array positioned in cochlea.
    4. Implant's electrodes stimulate cochlea's auditory nerve, sends impulses to brain, interpreted as sound.
  151. 151How does the ear aid in balance?1. Hair cells in specific area become stimulated
    2. Sensory neurons relay information through cell bodies in spiral ganglion to cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
    3. Information reaches auditory nuclei of brain stem (medulla oblongata) and ascends to midbrain
    4. Signal travels to thalamus
    5. Projection fibers relay information to different areas of auditory cortex in the temporal lobe
    6. Auditory information interpreted by brain and acted upon
  152. 152What is Meniere's disease?Disorder of the inner ear. Affects balance and hearing. Rotational vertigo, uni/bilateral hearing loss and tinnitus (ringing in ears), uni/bilateral sensation of pressure/fullness in ears.
  153. 153What is our visible spectrum of light?400-700nm
  154. 154List and define 7 structures of they eye1. Cornea: transparent anterior surface, refracting surface
    2. Iris: coloured part of eye
    3. Lens: clarity, refracting surface
    4. Pupil: hole that light passes through in centre of iris, size regulated by autonomic activity
    5. Vitreous humour: fluid within eye
    6. Retina: site of photoreceptors
    7. Sclera: white outer layer
  155. 155Describe aqueous humourSecreted by epithelial cells, similar to CSF, distributes nutrients, removes waste, fluid cushion, retains shape, reabsorbed into veins in sclera.
  156. 156Define conjunctivaEpithelium lining of surface of eye and inner eyelids. Ocular, palpebral, fornix.
  157. 157Where are tears produced?The lacrimal gland. Delivered to eye through tear ducts.
  158. 158What controls pupil size? ExplainPupillary dilator muscles: contraction enlarges pupil. Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system. - pull apart pupil
    Pupillary constrictor muscles: contraction constricts pupil. Stimulated by parasympathetic nervous system. - sphincters contract
  159. 159Outline structure and function of lensCells filled with transparent proteins called crystallins give clarity and focusing power. Lens changes shape to adjust clear vision at different distances.
  160. 160Define accommodation (sensory system)The process by which the eye focuses images on the retina by changing the shape of the lens to keep the focal distance constant.
  161. 161Outline structure and function of parts of the retinaInnermost layer of the eye. Pigmented outer layer absorbs light, neural inner layer contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) and is sensitive to light. Fovea is sight of sharpest vision.
  162. 162What is retinal?Pigment synthesised from vitamin A
  163. 163What is opsin?Protein that determines wavelength absorption of pigment
  164. 164What do rods do? (visual)Responsible for monochromatic vision and detecting low light. 125 million in retina. Contain purple pigment rhodopsin.
  165. 165What do cones do? (visual)Responsible for colour vision, detect high light. Highest visual acuity. 6 million in retina. Require brighter light to function. 3 types, red, green, blue. Combined differential stimulation allows brain to discern colours.
  166. 166Outline the visual pathway1. Rods and cones detect light, connect with adjoining cells in retina
    2. Send electrical signal to optic nerve fibres
    3. Optic nerves send visual information to brain
    4. Brain interprets information
  167. 167What are cataracts and how does it occur?Opaque lens. Injury, radiation, drug reaction. Surgically replace with synthetic lens.
  168. 168What is myopia?Nearsightedness. Focal distance too short because eyeball too deep, resting curvature of lens too great. Correct with concaving disc in front of lens.
  169. 169What is hyperopia?Farsightedness. Focal distance too long (in back of retina). Eyeball too shallow, lens too flat. Correct with convex disc in front of lens.
  170. 170DElectroencephalogram. Measures electrical activity of brain to diagnose seizures, strokes etc.
  171. 171Define the 5 types of EEG brainwaves1. Gamma: problem-solving, concentration. Tight spikes.
    2. Beta: busy, active mind. Spikes and dips, camel humps.
    3. Alpha: restful, reflective. Soft spikes.
    4. Theta: drowsiness. Soft waves.
    5. Delta: sleep, dreaming. Fairly flat, occasional dips or rounded peaks.
  172. 172Explain the 3 stages of non-REM sleep (non-rapid eye movement)Stage 1.
    - alpha activity 5-10 mins
    - stage between sleep and wakefulness
    - muscles active
    - eyes roll slowly, open and close
    - unaware of being asleep
    Stage 2.
    - theta activity 20 mins
    - gradually becomes harder to wake
    - sleep spindles and K complexes
    Stage 3.
    - delta activity
    - unresponsive to surroundings
    - initiated in pre-optic area
    - bedwetting and sleepwalking occur
  173. 173What is a K complex?A sharp, negative EEG wave followed by a high-voltage slow wave in stage 2 of non-REM sleep
  174. 174What is a sleep spindle?A burst of oscillatory brain activity visible on an EEG in stage 2 of non-REM sleep
  175. 175When and how does REM sleep occur? What happens during it?Approximately every 90 minutes, may last up to 60 mins each time. Voluntary muscles are paralysed. When dreaming occurs due to increased brain activity. Stimulated by acetylcholine, inhibited by serotonin. Arousal and oxygen consumption higher than when awake.
  176. 176Anterograde vs retrograde amnesiaAnterograde: unable to transfer new short-term memories into long-term memory. Long-term memories intact - 50 first dates
    Retrograde: unable to recall long-term memories but able to make new memories.
  177. 177What is the inter-atrial septum/fossa ovalis made of?Remnant of foramen ovale in fetus that bypasses pulmonary circulation
  178. 178What is trabeculae carnae?Bundles of cardiac muscles on cardiac ventricle walls.
  179. 179Bicuspid vs tricuspid valve vs semilunar valvesBicuspid/mitral between left ventricle and left atrium. Tricuspid between right ventricle and right atrium. Semilunar between ventricles and great vessels.
  180. 180Valve cusps are achached to ventricular papillary muscles via chordae tendineae (fibrous cords)...
  181. 181What happens in the heart when the 2nd heart beat sound is heard?The semilunar valves close
  182. 182Define stenosisIncreased resistance to blood flow due to valvular disease
  183. 183Parachute in heart ischordinae tendinae
  184. 184Define and describe intercalated discsCross-bands that separate the opposing ends of cardiac muscle cells. Help to hold adjacent cells together and transmit the force of contraction
    from cell to cell.
  185. 185Define visceral pericardiumAKA epicardium: outer serous membrane of heart wall
  186. 186Define parietal pericardiumOuter fibrous layer: dense irregular CT, protects & anchors heart, prevents overstitching
    Inner serous layer (serosa): thin delicate membrane of mesothelium + CT
  187. 187What is coronary circulationBlood flow to the cardiac tissues
  188. 188Define and describe the right coronary artery branchesRight marginal branch: supplies border of right ventricle towards apex
    Posterior interventricular descending artery: supplies posterior of both ventricles
  189. 189Define and describe the left coronary artery branchesCircumflex artery: supplies left atrium & most of left ventricle
    Left interventricular anterior descending artery: supplies both ventricles
  190. 190Coronary artery diseaseReduced blood supply to myocardial tissue due to narrowing of vessels (artery spasm, clot etc)
  191. 191Define myocardial infarctionHeart attack
    Coronary occlusion - death of heart tissue - loss of function
  192. 192Define and describe the coronary sinusLargest vein draining the heart. Opens into right atrium. Receives all smaller cardiac veins and great cardiac vein.
  193. 193Define and describe the great cardiac veinBegins at apex of heart, ascends along with the interventricular branch of
    the left coronary artery. Turns to left and continues as coronary sinus.
  194. 194Define and describe the middle cardiac veinBegins at apex of heart, ascends in posterior interventricular groove, accompanying posterior IV branch of right coronary artery. Drains into the right end of the coronary sinus.
  195. 195Define and describe the small cardiac veinRuns along the right margin of the heart in company with the marginal artery and then
    posteriorly in the coronary sulcus to end in the right end of the coronary sinus.
  196. 196Oblique vein of the left atrium: descends to empty into the coronary sinus, near its left end. Anterior cardiac vein: drains the anterior right ventricle, crosses the coronary groove, and ends directly in the right atrium. Smallest cardiac veins (venae cordis minimal): begin in the wall of the heart and empty directly into its chambers....
  197. 197What is the ductus arteriosis?Blood vessel connecting the pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta. Allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to bypass the foetus's fluid-filled non-functioning lungs.
  198. 198Describe the layers of ovaries from outside inGerminal epithelium - simple
    Capsule - tunica albuginea - fibrous CT
    Ovarian cortex - follicles, corpus luteum, corpus albicans
    Ovarian medulla - CT, nerves, vessels
  199. 199Define oogenisisProduction of egg cells (oocytes)
  200. 200Stages of oogenisis1 functional ovum
    1 primary oocyte created during meiosis 1
    1 secondary oocyte created during meiosis 2 and released
    **meiosis 2 not completed until fertilisation
    2-3 polar bodies

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Fichas sobre Biology exam., creado por Elizabeth McQuie el 15/05/2016.
Creado por
Elizabeth McQuie · may 2016
Actualizado
25 jun 2016
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