Syntax

Syntax

1. The sentence (Major Syntax)

2. The word-combination(Minor Syntax)

   • . A word-combination is a combination of 2 or more words which is functionally equivalent to a word, i.e. serves to express one notion in spite of the separability of its components.
     • 1. Loose word-groups are based on the principle of coordination. Here the members are independent of each other. E.g. ladies and gentlemen, pens and pencils.
     • 2. Close word-groups are based on the principle of subordination where one member is syntactically the leading member of the group (bright light).
       • a) The concept of ranks – Jespersen mentions different ranks of words according to whether they are defined or defining. In the word-comb. ‘extremely hot weather’ - weather is the primary word, hot , which defines weather, is secondary and extremely, which defines hot, is tertiary. It is possible to have quaternary, quinary, etc.
         • b) The concept of junction and nexus Nexus – any construction having predication. The children are playing. Junction – any construction that has subordination without predication – the playing children. Let’s take these two combinations. 1. a furiously barking dog ----junction 2. The dog barks furiously. ---- nexus In both the constructions the dog is primary, barks (barking) - are secondary and furiously is tertiary. In a junction often the members are so close that they are considered one composite name – a silly person = a fool. In a nexus the elements are connected in a more pliable (flexible) way. (The dog barks furiously. The children are playing).
         • structural theory of word-groups
           • 1.endocentric (having a center) If we take happy John – it is a nounal (nominative) expression like John. Thus the forms John and happy John on the whole have the same function, therefore the latter (happy John) is called an endocentric construction. In endocentric groups the head-word functions in the same way as the whole group. E.g. John smiled - Happy John smiled. The head –word of the endocentric group (John) functions in the same way as the whole group (happy John) – i.e. John substitutes for the group.
             • 2. In the case of exocentric word-groups each word-group consists of 2 or more free constituents (words) which are combined in a phrase called a resultant phrase. E.g. John ran is neither a nominative expression (like John) nor a finite-verb expression (like ran). Bloomfield differentiates 2 types of exocentric phrases: b) predicative phrases (John ran) which is based on the principle of syntactic bond and c) prepositional phrase (beside John), which is based on the principle of morphological characteristics of the group (i.e. prepositions are used with nouns, pronouns). In exocentric phrases there is no center and each member is all important (each member has its unique function). In this case the members cannot be used in the functions of either of its members. In the sentence “She sat beside me” neither she nor sat can substitute for she sat and neither beside nor me can replace beside me. We can say that each member in an exocentric word-group has its unique function and imp
             • Traditional Approaches to the Study of Word-combinations
               • 1.Taxonomy or structural classification is one of the methods studying word-combinations. Taxonomy describes various syntactic patterns characteristic of the language. This classification is often presented as a formula: A+N (adj. + noun) or V+N (verb+ noun). This method has mostly been criticized for being based only on colligation, i.e. the combinability of parts of speech. On the other hand it doesn’t consider all the patterns in the language (which is practically impossible).
                 • 2.The second approach to the study of word-combinations is based on the theory of valency, which was introduced by structural linguist L. Tesniere. He borrowed the term from chemistry. Initially it was used to denote the combinability of the verb with other parts of speech. Now it refers to combinability of certain words in word-groups, due to lexical phraseological attraction or repulsion (collocation). The term valency implies that there is mutual attraction between some words (tall man, to set an example) and there is mutual repulsion between some words (handsome woman, high man, to do a mistake). This phenomenon is described as lexical- phraseological combinability of words or collocation.