Animal Studies

Animal Studies

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2. Lorenz

   • Although Lorenz's study has influenced the understanding of human development, it can not be generalised to humans, as the experiment was conducted on birds.
     • The mammalian attachment system, differs from that of birds. Mammals form more emotional attachments than birds and can form attachments at any time. despite it being easier in infancy.
   • Lorenz's research has been questioned by other researchers. For example, the idea that imprinting has long-term permanent effects on mating, Guiton et al. (1966) found that chickens that imprinted on yellow washing gloves would try to mate with them, but eventually learned to mate with other chickens.

3. Lorenz

   • Imprinting
     • Lorenz conducted an experiment in which he randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs. Half of the eggs hatched in a natural environment, and the other half hatched in an incubator, where the first moving thing they saw, was Lorenz.
       • The control group, which hatched with the mother, followed her everywhere, while the experimental group, hatched in the incubator, followed Lorenz. Even when both groups were mixed together, the control still followed the mother, while the experimental group continued to follow Lorenz.
         • This occurrence is called 'imprinting'-in which birds that are mobile from birth follow and attach to the first moving object they see. Lorenz has also recognized that there is a critical period in which imprinting needs to occur, which, depending on the species, can be within the first few hours after hatching. If imprinting does not take place, Lorenz found that chicks did not attach themselves to a mother figure.
   • Sexual Imprinting
     • Lorenz also studied the relationships between imprinting and adult mate preferences. He found birds that imprinted on humans would often display courtships behaviour towards humans, in later life.
       • In a 1952 case study, Lorenz reported a peacock that had been born in a reptile house, and after hatching had seen giant tortoises as the first moving objects. As an adult, the peacock would only show courtship behaviour to giant tortoises, this meant that the bird had undergone 'sexual imprinting'.
   • Konrad Lorenz, an ethologist, conducted a study of the relationships between infant animals and their mothers.

4. Harlow

   • Contact Comfort
     • Harlow had observed that newborns which had been left alone in empty cages usually died, but would survive if given something soft, like cloth, to cuddle.
       • In 1958, Harlow tested the theory that soft objects serve some of the functions of a mother. In an experiment, he raised 16 baby monkeys, with two wire models as 'mothers'. One covered in cloth and one bare.
         • In one condition, the monkeys were given milk through the cloth 'mother' and in the second condition, through the bare wire 'mother'.
           • He found that the baby monkeys cuddle the soft cloth 'mother' over the wire 'mother' and sought comfort from the clothe 'mother' when frightened, regardless of which dispensed milk. This showed that contact comfort was more important, even more so than food, when it came to the development of attachment
   • Harry Harlow conducted perhaps the most important study contributing to our understanding of attachment. In this study, he used rhesus monkey, much closer to humans than birds.
   • Effects of Maternal Deprivation in Adult Monkeys
     • Harlow and colleagues followed the monkeys deprived of a 'real' mother into adulthood to see if early maternal deprivation had any permanent effects.
       • The researchers found that this had severe consequences. Monkeys raised by wire 'mothers' were the most dysfunctional, but even those with the soft cloth 'mothers' did not display normal social behaviour. They were more aggressive and less sociable than other monkeys, and bred less often than a typical monkey, being unskilled at mating.
         • As mothers, some of the monkeys neglected their young and others even attacked them, sometimes killing the children.
           • Similar to Lorenz, Harlow found that there was a critical period in which attachment must form, a mother figure must be introduced within 90 days, after this period attachment could no longer form and any damage to development could not be reversed.

5. Harlow

   • Harlow's research has great theoretical value. It has had a major effect on the understanding of attachment and has shown that attachment does not develop through being fed, but rather contact comfort. As well as showing that quality attachments are important for later social development, including forming adult relationships and raising children.
     • However, some people argue, that while the species of monkey is similar to humans, its still a monkey, therefore not human, meaning the study cannot be completely generalised.
       • Harlow's research has also had a range of practical effects. For example it has taught social workers the risks in child abuse and neglect and so to intervene to prevent it. (Howe 1998). These findings are also important in the care of captive monkeys and the role of proper attachment figures for baby monkeys and in breeding programmes in the wild.
         • Harlow has faced severe criticism as the monkeys suffered greatly as a result of his procedure. This species is consider similar enough to humans to make generalisations and assume their suffering was quite human-like. Harlow himself is aware of this and referred to the models of 'mothers' used in his experiment as 'iron maidens' - as in the torture device, showing even he agrees his methods were cruel.
           • However, some say his methods can be justified by the profound impact they have had on the understanding of attachment.