Human Memory

Human Memory

1. Encoding involves forming a memory code. Storage involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time. Retrieval involves recovering information from memory stores.

2. Encoding

   • Structural encoding: emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus. Phonemic encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like. Sematic encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input. Levels-of-processing proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes.

3. Storage

   • The sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only for a fraction of a second.
   • Short-term capacity is the number of items that can be recalled from STM, in order, on half tested memory trails is about 7 plus or minus 2 items. Cowan's research prevents subjects from chunking and rehearsing information shows it is likely 4 plus or minus 1.
     • Maintenance rehearsal: just done to keep it in memory e.g. phone number. Elaborative rehearsal: think more about it so you are more likely to remember it later.
   • Long-term memory (LTM) is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
   • Flashbulb memories, which are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events. It may not be permanent and accurate. They become less detailed over-time like memories.
   • Conceptual Hierarchies: multilevel classification system. Schemas: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event which we understand from previous experience. Semantic network consist of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts.

4. Retrieval

   • Tip of the tongue phenomenon: temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it is just out of reach. One type of retrieval cue is called context cues. Reinstating the context e.g. crime stoppers
   • Encoding specificity principle: various pieces of information stored at the same time or in the same type of situation, mood, or place.

5. Forgetting

   • Forgetting curve are graphs retention and forgetting over time. It shows a precipitous drop in retention during the first few hours after the nonsense syllables were memorized. Three measures of retention include 1.Recall 2.Recognition 3. Relearning
   • Pseudoforgetting is usually due to lack of attention. Phonemic encoding, which is inferior to semantic encoding for retention of verbal material. when you can't remember the information that you've read, your forgetting may be due to in ineffective encoding.
   • Seven sins of memory: First three sins-transience, absent-mindedness, and blocking. Sins of omission in which we cannot bring the memory of mind. Transience is the simple weakening of the memory over time. Absentmindedness refers to a memory failure that is often due to failure to pay attention because they are preoccupied with something else.
     • The next four sins: misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence are sins of commission. They are memory problems where some type of memory is present, but the memory either incorrect or unwanted. Misattribution, we assign a memory to the wrong source. Suggestibility, our memory is distorted because a misleading memory. Bias refers to inaccuracy due to the effect of our current knowledge on our reconstruction of the past.

6. Systems and Types of Memory

   • Implicit memory is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering. Explicit memory, which involves intentional recollection of previous experiences. The declarative memory system handles factual information. The nondeclarative or procedural memory system houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses.
   • The episodic memory system is made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences. The semantic memory system contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned. Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future. Retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information.
   • Mneumonic system- methods to increase the recall of information: Overlearning: continuing to rehearse and learn information you think you already know. Acrostics-first letter of words in a sentence "Every Good Boy Does Fine" to remember the names of the lines on a musical staff (EGBDF). Keyword method- used when you have to remember someone's name or a foreign word, relate it to a concrete word that can be pictured.