Virtue Ethics.

Virtue Ethics.

1. Background

   • Stemmed from Aristotelian thought.
   • Modern Virtue Ethics developed in the later 19th c. to break the dominance of Deontology and Consequentialism, providing a more compassionate approach to ethics.
   • It was Understood that there was a fine line between being a savage and a civilised person. And - Human beings find it very hard to follow as virtuous life.

2. Aristotle

   • Arete
     • Relates to the idea of excellence, in the way something performs its job/purpose.
     • Aristotle placed this in the context of moral virtue; with those in society performing their individual roles in order to function harmoniously together, which leads to Eudaimonia.
   • The Golden Mean
     • The Balance between Excess and Deficiency.
     • This balance ensures that a society works in harmony.
     • Example: G.M for a Soldier: Courage. If they lack courage they show cowardice. If they have excess courage they are foolhardy.
     • human beings share common virtues.
     • People Also have have individual virtues which relate to their role within society; the G.M of which, creates harmonious existence.
   • Eudaimonia
     • When the Golden mean is found - Eudaimonia is achieved.
     • The Happiness / Contentment achieved when something fulfils its purpose; the Telos from all humans.
     • The Moral element of Eudaimonia is that it also applies to society, bringing collective peace and harmony.
     • Aristotle uses the analogy of the body - like a society; it's various organs must work in harmony in order for the body to function; sectors of society must work in harmony for the good of society.
   • Virtue is based on the completion of Natural Law.

3. Modern Virtue Ethics

   • Originates from Aristotle - but it largely very different.
     • Modern/ V.Es reject the concept of a priori moral laws (Natural Law); very different from Aristotle. This because they object to naturalistic fallacy.
   • Agent-centered - based on character traits.
   • Based on character traits - a moral person is one who possesses virtue.
     • Robert Adams - However, a virtuous person must Act. Virtue cannot be self-contained.
       • 'You will know them by their fruits' (Matthew 7:16)
     • A moral agent needs examples of virtue in another person/people in order to be virtuous themselves.
       • These are guidelines - not templates - as V.E rejects a law-based approach to morality.
       • Simply admiring and appreciating those of moral virtue will enhance the agent's own morality. However, the agent will also become less moral by admiring those who do not act virtuously.
       • No agent is perfect - so should not be worshiped. - To do so would be to mask the faults all humans have.
         • R. Adams points out that humans a pone to Moral Frailty. We are supposed to have courage / strong-will etc, but in reality; modern psychology has shown this to be incorrect. Hence modern V.E. reflects the Christian tradition that all human beings are sinners.
           • 'All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.' (Romans 3:23).
   • Division Amoung M.V.Es
     • 1. Some see the moral action itself as important in making the individual virtuous.
     • 2. Others believe the nature of the moral agent to be most important.
     • 1's see the actions of the agent as a sign of their virtue. 2's see the nature of the individual as an indication of their virtue. - Not bothered with their actions.
   • Motive Virtue Ethics
     • Elizabeth Anscombe - Chief exponent. - Strong Catholic. 'intention'; her book.
       • Assumes that humans want to follow a virtuous life for the sake of following a virtuous life.
     • Anscombe rejected naturalistic fallacy and the is/ough dichotomy. - If a plant is limp, that is because of a lack of water; so you provide it with what it lacks; this is not a logical fallacy.
     • 'Intention' - A man goes shopping to cook a meal.. intending to by the ingredients, he instead shops impulsively, and is unable to cook. - it was not the person who wrote the list who was wrong - but the impulsive actions of the man. - you may have a list of moral virtues, but choosing to acting is most important.
       • This is why Anscombe places emphasis on the Law of Double Effect - because it places emphasis on the intentions of the moral agent.
     • Philippa Foot - Holocaust made her reject the idea of subjective morality. - Virtue is objective in nature.
       • Human beings should be led to desire right moral action. - This will develop the natural good ness of human beings; achieved through reason; Phronesis.
         • So, for both types of VE require Phronesis for rational decision making - reflection. - always practical?
     • Macintyre
       • Argues that humans need movitve to follow a virtuous life - to assume that humans desire a virtuous life for its own sake in unrealistic.
       • Consequences matter; we give to receive in return.
       • Michael Sloate: 'Warm VE'
         • Develops this idea, considering motives as the basis for VE, rather than obedience to theoretical virtues.
         • The moral agent should base judgements on virtues such as care and empathy.
           • Slote regards sentimentality as morally good - unlike Kanitian ethics and Mill; which regard it as a weakness.
             • Sloate criticised traditional approach to virtue ethics as too cold.

4. Theoretical School of MVE

   • Rosalind Hursthouse - Chief Exponent. - On Virtue Ethics -
   • Not concerned with the practical examples of ethics as the basis for morality; they are results of a moral state.
     • Hursthouse is most interested in the virtues (A's GM) - she calls these the X-Factor.
       • If you are virtuous by nature, your actions will be virtuous. If you are of poor moral virtue, you cannot be virtuous. -Therfore, we should seek to get into a state of virtuous living in order to be virtuous.
   • Weaknesses of Theoretical VE
     • How can you weigh actions on a state of virtue? - A decision may be made because of individual, virtuous inclinations, when really, the deeper motive is self-interested.
     • How can two people of seemingly equal virtue, produce conflicting moral ideals?
     • How can a persons moral state be definitively judged? - in Kantian ethics this can be done by assessing one's acceptance of the categorical imperative. - In Utilitarianism, and action be judged based on the 'greatest number for the greatest good - VE has no such guidelines.

5. Practical Virtue Ethics

   • An issue with VE is its ability to translate from character traits into moral action.
   • Hurst house demonstrate how VE could be applied to issues such as abortion - but this not specific cases.
   • Martha Nussbaum utilises the Greek/Aristotlian principle of Phronesis to examine specific issues.
     • Phronesis - rational process (A called 'sophia' - Wisdom - N.E) which identifies practical means to applying moral concepts to life.
   • V.Es struggle with notions such as justice, which are often lost in examaning the

6. Strengths of VE

   • Places emphasis on examining the character of the moral agent; unlike most other modern ethical theories.
   • Regards human relationships as important; the need to care for those to whom the moral agent is close.
     • - Kant regards this as morally dangerous.
   • It takes seriously that which other ethical theories regard with suspicion. - human emotions and responsibilities are important.
   • Allows individuals to make decisions based on their moral well-being; not simply what is legally right. Someone who's is virtuous is distinguished from one who simply abides law.
   • Rejects simplistic rules as a basis for morality. Regards morality as complex. - Rejects simplistic rules / maxims i.e 'greatest good for the greatest number.
   • Does not claim to be able to solve every moral problem, but tries to equip one with the virtues to make good moral decisions.
   • Places virtues such as truthfulness, courage etc at the centre of morality.

7. Weaknesses of VE

   • Robert Louden - Concentration on the individual. It may help an agent become virtuous, however, it does not provide answers when faced with ethical crisis.
   • Particularist - Concentrates on a limited number of virtues which it asserts to help create a virtuous person. -Modern Democracies cannot make ethical decisions on the basis of individual character traits; they need to look at the consequences as a whole.
   • Assumes that there are character traits - which is rejected by many psychologists. - Gilbert Harman - these character traits are illusions.
   • Praises Golden Mean - could be seen as foolish - Modern V.E's see no difference in the courage of a solider and a civilian.
   • Ignores Relativist Dilemma - is virtue difference from one country to another?