Learning

Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

   • Initially developed by Ivan Pavlov, this refers to a type of learning in which a stimulus gets the capacity to evoke a response that originally evoked by a physically natural stimulus. This is presumed to be the cause of many of our fears. Phobias- Irrational fears of specific objects or situations  Conditioning- Learning connections between events in the environment
   • Terminology
     • Unconditional Stimulus- Stimulus that automatically leads to an observational response prior to training (natural reflective response). Unconditional response- Observational response that is produced automatically prior to training on the presentation of the US. Conditional Stimulus- Neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning. Conditional Response- The acquired response produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the US. Trail- A presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimulus.
   • Little Albert
     • Classical conditioning can produce fears and disorders, but also can be used in a positive way, like in advertisements. -Little Albert was an example where classical conditioning created a fear. Watson and Raynor (1920) introduced a little boy to a white rat. He showed no fear, when he came into contact with it in later trails they made a loud noise that scared the boy. After a few trails of this he was terrified of white rats and other things that resembled white rats.
   • Conditioning and the Physiological Response
     • Evaluative conditioning- Refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that results from pairing the stimulus whether it is positive or negative. -Ader and Cohen showed that classical conditioning can lead to immunosuppression, which is the decrease in the production of antibodies in the body. When they injected animals with a drug that produced this effect, and paired it with a drink, they got to a point where they could just give them a drink to have this reaction. - Drug tolerance may also br due to classical conditioning, as well as food aversion.
   • Basic Processes
     • Acquisition- learning a new behaviour, usually something novel, unusual or very intense that results in classical conditioning. Timing is a factor, stimulus contiguity and how close they are together. Extinction- Presenting conditioned stimulus repeatedly after conditioning, without the CS  resulting in a response. Spontaneous Recovery- Recovery of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus, often the conditioned reaction is not as strong as before. Renewal effect- If a response is extinguished in a different environment from where it was acquired, it will reappear once the animal or person is returned to the original environment. Stimulus Generalization- Responding to new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established conditioned stimulus. In this case similar stimulus leads to similar conditioned responses. Stimulus Descrimination- Responding differently to a new stimulus that one responds to an established conditioned stimulus. High Order Conditioning- After conditioned stimulus reliably elicits a response, the conditioned stimulus can be paired with another stimuli. Stimuli that elicits the same response

2. Operant Conditioning

   • A form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences of their own voluntary actions. An example is that if you study you learn that you gat good grades. Law of Effect (Thorndike)- If a response is in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened. If followed by an unsatisfying one it will be weakened. Acquisition- The initial stage of learning a new response, some are more complex and require shaping. Shaping- This occurs when rewards are given for a behaviour that is closer and closer to the desired result. Extinction- Response is no longer followed by a reinforcement, so the behaviour increases the behaviour then is followed by a gradual decrease. Resistance to Extinction- If you want resistance to extinction, schedules of reinforcement help this.
   • Reinforcement
     • When an event following a response increases a person or animals tendency to make that response. Escape Response- Learning a response to end or decrease an aversive stimulus. Avoidance Response- Acquiring a response that prevents some aversive stimulus from occurring at all Primary Reinforcement- Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. Secondary or Conditioned Reinforcers- Associated with primary reinforcers and so acquire reinforcing qualities.
   • Punishment
     • Punishment- Consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again Side Effects of Physical Punishment of Children- Supreme Court of Canada ruled that a parent can only spank a child aged 2-12 and cannot use objects or hit them on the head. associated with poor child-parent relationships, elevated aggression, delinquency and behavioural problems in children. These effects may continue into adulthood with increased aggression, criminal behaviour, mental health problems and child abuse.
   • Consequences
     • 4 Types of Consequences Positive Reinforcement- Adding something valuable or desirable. Negative Reinforcement- Avoiding something unpleasant. Positive Punishment- Adding something unpleasant. Negative Punishment- Removing something desirable.
   • Schedules of Reinforcement
     • Continuous- Every response followed rapidly by reinforcement Ratio- Number of response Internal- Time on clock Fixed- Always the same Variable- Changes
     • Ratio Schedules
       • Fixed- Ratio Schedule- Number of responses required for reinforcement stays the same. Tends to produce steady, consistent rates of responding, but might stop for a period after reinforcement. Extinction when reinforcement is no longer given. Variable- Ratio Schedule- A certain number of responses required for reinforcement, but this number changes. Extinction takes longer.
     • Interval Schedules
       • Fixed- interval Schedule- Reinforcement delivered for first response after a fixed allotment of time. Tend to produce low rates of responding and a "scalloping" pattern. Variable-interval Schedule- Allowed time before a response will yeild reinforcement changes.
   • B.F. Skinner
     • Skinner had a perspective on human and animal behaviour that emphasizes explaining behaviour in terms of environmental events and then minimized the use of internal explanations, like thoughts, beliefs and intentions. Operant chamber (Skinner Box)

3. Observational Learning

   • Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experiences of others. AKA social learning or modelling. Many skills that we are proficient in we learned through observational learning. We have a natural tendency to do this and it has been observed in many different species. It is strongest when modelling is viewed positively, and is rewarded. 4 Conditions for Effective Mimicry 1. Attention 2. Retention  3. Replication 4. Motivation
   • Practical Applications
     • Very relevant to children. Modelling techniques such as films, used to reduce fears and promote positive behaviour. T.V. may produce modelling of negative behaviour (aggression, stereotyping and fears).
   • Bandura and Bobo
     • Bandura- Researcher who studied the effects of viewing aggression on children. Study involved film go adult female hitting a "Bobo" doll. Children acted out interactions with the doll. Adult was either praised or punished.
   • Media Violence
     • Excessive T.V. has been linked to obesity, lower academic performance. Canadian Pediatric Society has recommended 2 hours per day. T.V., movie and video game aggression has been linked to physical and verbal aggression, aggressive thoughts and emotions in children and adults. Reduced sensitivity to pain of others. Exposure to media violence predicts aggressiveness in adolescence and adulthood.
   • Mirror Neurons
     • Neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing an another monkey or human preform the same action. These play a major role in empathy and learning motor skills. Disinhibition- Reduced inhibitions from mirror neurons 
   • Effects
     • Prosocial Effects- Can create positive and helpful behaviours in others, such as celebrity lead groups. Antisocial Effects- Can also create negative effects, such as aggressive kids from abusive parents, or repeated exposure to violence.