CHAPTER 6 LEARNING

CHAPTER 6 LEARNING

1. Observational learning

   • Observational learning can account for the influence of mass media (such as television) on behaviour the principles of observational learning have also been used to explain why physical punishment increases aggressive behaviour
   • Observational learning occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others who are called models.
   • Mirrow Neurons
     • Mirror neurons are neurons that are activated by performing an action or seen another monkey or person perform the same action

2. Operant conditioning

   • Operant conditioning involves largely voluntary responses that are governed by their consequence
   • Thorndilke's Law of Effect
     • According to the law of effect, if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects' the association between the stimulus and the response is stengthened.
   • Reinforcement: occurs when an event following a response increase an organism's tendency to make that response .
   • Terminology and Procedures
     • Skinner box
       • An operant chamber, or skinner box, is a small enclosrue in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled.
     • Reinforcement Contingencies
       • Reinforcement contingencies : are the circumstances or rules tha determine whether response lead to the presentation of reinforcers
     • Cumulative Recorder
       • The cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a skinner box as a function of time.
     • Primary reinforcers
       • Primary reinforcers are events of that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.
     • Secondary or conditioned (reinforcers)
       • Secondary , or conditioned, reinforcers are events that aquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
   • Basic Processess in Operant Conditioning
     • Acquisition and shaping
       • Shaping, which consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
     • Extinction
       • Resistance in extintion occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated.
     • Discriminative Stimuli
       • Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences ( reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response .
   • Schedule of Reinforcement
     • A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer.
       • Continuous reinforcement : occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.
         • Intermittent , or partial, reinforcement : occurs when a designated response is reinfored only some of the time.
           • With a Fixed-Ratio (FR): schedule, the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.
             • With a Variable-Ration (VR): schedule, the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses.
               • With a fixed-interval (FI): schedule, the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.
                 • With a variable-Interval (VI): schedule, the reinforcer is givenfor the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
   • Positive Reinforcement versus Negative Reinforcement
     • Positive Reinforcement: of occurs when a response is straightened because it's followed by the presentation of rewarding stimulus
     • Negative Reinforcement: is when a response is strengthened because it's followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant ) stimulus
     • In Escape Learning: an organism acquires a response that decrease or end some aversive stimulation.
     • In Avoidance Learning: an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring.
   • Latent learning : learning that is not apparent from behaviour when it first occurs.
   • Instinctive Drift: occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with condiotioning processes.
   • Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendancy to make that response.

3. Classical Conditioning

   • Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Classical condition is also known as a Pavlovian conditioning
   • Terminology and Procedures
     • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.
       • Unconditioned response (UCR): is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
         • Conditioned stimulus (US) is a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
           • Conditioned response (CR) is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.
             • Trial : classic conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.
     • Evaluative Condition of Attitude
       • Evaluative conditioning : refers to change in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli
   • Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
     • Acquisition: refers to the initial stage of learning something
       • Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.
         • Spontaneous Recovery: is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
           • Renewal effect: if a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place.
   • Stimulus Generalization and the Mysterious Case of little Albert
     • Stimulus generalization: occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
     • Stimulus discrimination: occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimulus that are similar to the original stimulus.
     • Higher-order condition: in which a condition stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus

4. Learning: is any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience.

5. Phobias: are irrational fears of specific objects or situations

6. Agoraphobia, or an intense fear of being in public places where it may be difficult to escape from or in which it might be difficult to obtain help

7. Conditioning involves learning connections between events that occur in an organism's environment

8. Behaviour modification: is a systematic approach to change behaviour through the application of the principles of conditioning .

9. Antecedents are event that typically precede the target response.