Chapter 11: Human Development Across the Life Span

Chapter 11: Human Development Across the Life Span

1. Much of child's development is the result of relatively predetermined physiological changes

   • Development is the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death
     • Conception occurs when fertilization creates a zygote, a one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg
       • Each chromosome houses genes that carry the details of your hereditary blueprints
       • All other cells in your body develop from this single cell
       • The prenatal period has 3 stages: germinal, embryonic, fetal
         • Germinal: First 2 weeks after conception. Zygote created, within 36 hours rapid cell division begins, implants on uterine wall at day 7, 1 in 5 are rejected and women may not have been aware conception occured
         • Embryonic: Lasts 2 weeks until end of second month. Vital organs and bodily systems begin to form and now called an embryo 2.5cm long. Starts to look more human including hands, feet, ears, spine. Most miscarriage occurs at this stage
         • Fetal: Lasts from 2 months til birth. Becomes capable of physical movements as skeletal structures harden. Organs continue to grow, sex organs develop during 3rd month
           • Sometime between 22 weeks and 26 weeks the fetus reaches the age of viability - the age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth
             • May experience developmental problems
               • Links between adult physical and mental health. Prenatal development can program brain to influence ones vulnerability to various types of illness decades later

2. Teratogens are any external agents, such as drugs or viruses, that can harm an embryo or fetus

   • Fetal alcohol syndrome is a collection of inborn problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy
     • Typical problems: small head, heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, delayed mental and motor development
       • Most common cause of intellectual disability. Related to difficulties in school, depression, suicide, drug problems, and criminal behaviour
   • Babies in the womb exposed to environmental toxins such as pollution have been linked to impairments in cognitive development at age 5
   • Maternal weight gain associated with a variety of birth complications. Health Canada suggests Canada's Food Guide

3. Motor development refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities: grasping, reaching, sitting up, crawling, walking, running

   • Cephalocaudal trend - the head-to-foot direction of motor development. Children gain control over the upper part of their bodies before the lower part.
     • Proximodistal trend is the centre-outward direction of motor development. Children gain control over their torso before their extremities. Eg reaching for things by twisting entire body and then learn to just extend arms
   • Maturation is development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint
   • Driving force behind motor development is infants ongoing exploration of their world and their need to master specific tasks
     • They must remember the consequences of their activities
   • Tribes across the world use a variety of methods to promote rapid development of motor abilities in their children

4. Temperament refers to mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity

   • Infants show consistent differences in emotional tone, tempo of activity, and sensitivity to environmental stimuli very early in life
     • Longitudinal design - observe one group of participants repeatedly over a period of time
       • Cross-sectional design - compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time
         • Cohort effects occur when differences between age groups are due to the groups growing up in different time periods

5. Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers

   • Separation anxiety - emotional distress even in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment
     • See monkey fed by wire mother vs cloth wire mother
   • Bonding during the first few hours after birth does not appear to be crucial to secure attachment. Cultural variations in child-rearing can affect the patterns of attachment seen in a society
   • A stage is a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited
     • Stage theories assume that individuals must progress through a series of specified stages in a particular order and that development is marked by major discontinuities

6. Cognitive development refers to transitions in youngsters patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving

   • Piaget's Stage Theory
     • Stage 1: Sensorimotor period - Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence. Age birth-2 years
       • Stage 2: Preoperational period - Development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism. Age 2-7 years
         • Stage 3: Concrete operational period - Mental operations applied to concrete events; mastery of conservation, hierarchical classification. Age 7-11 years
           • Stage 4: Formal operational period - Mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking. Age 11-adult
   • Lev Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory
     • Cognitive development is primarily fueled by childrens interactions with parents, teachers, and older children who can provide guidance
   • Kohlberg's Stage Theory
     • Focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour

7. Pubescence - 2 year span before puberty when changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place

   • Puberty - stage when sexual functions reach maturity, marks beginning of adolecence
     • Menarche - first occurence of menstration
     • Adolescent suicide rates have climbed dramatically in recent decades. Most theorists do not view this stage as time of turmoil
       • Arnett argues that adolescence is slightly more stressful than other periods of life
       • Erikson says key challenge is to develop sense of identity

8. During adulthood, personality marked by stability and change. Those who move successfully through stages, should develop intimacy, generativity, and integrity

   • Difficulty adjusting to marriage is more likely when spouses have different role expectations Eg. housework
   • Age-related physiological transitions: changes in appearance, sensory losses, hormonal changes Eg. menopause
     • Prevalence of dementia increases with age
     • Alzheimers disease has a subtle onset marked by chronic forgetting of newly learned information followed by a progressive deterioration over 8-10 years
       • Causes are not well understood. Thought to be genetic
     • General intelligence remains fairly stable, and there is a small decline after age 60
       • Mental speed declines but many people remain productive well into old age

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