READNG SKILLS 3.1

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In this lesson, you’ll study ways to interpret what you read. To interpret means to make sense of something or figure out what it’s about. There are four important skills in interpreting what you read. First, learn to make inferences because the information in what you read may not always be directly stated. For example, an article might tell you the streets were crowded with runners wearing numbers. From this information, you might infer that a city is having a marathon.

Second, separate facts from opinions. Facts stand out because they can be proven or disproven through evidence. Opinions, however, are based on the way people view a topic. While opinions may be based on fact, many times they add an element of emotion or even misinformation. For example, the statement that there are approximately 1.8 million children being homeschooled in the United States is a fact. The statement that homeschooling is a great choice to make for kids is an opinion.

Third, detect bias. The term bias refers to a tendency to believe that one viewpoint or belief is better than another. Many opinions reveal a bias toward or against something. For example, a statement about homeschooling made by a homeschooling parent might reflect an entirely different viewpoint from a statement made by a teacher.

Finally, draw conclusions. Conclusions are what you decide based on the information you’re given. Conclusions may be useful or not useful, depending on whether they’re based on facts or opinions.

This lesson will also introduce you to the art of poetry and fiction. It’s fitting that this part of your course comes last. It’s very challenging to learn to interpret fine poems and good fiction. That’s partly because poetry and fiction depend on a clever use of words to reveal ideas that come from people’s imaginations. Poetry and fiction are special since they allow readers to explore unknown worlds and new ideas, plus they can help people understand their lives and the lives of others in deeper and more insightful ways.

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Making Inferences

When you make an inference, you come to a conclusion based on what you know. For example, if you see a large cloud of smoke off in the distance, you can infer (draw a conclusion) that there’s a fire somewhere. If you see dark clouds when you wake up in the morning, you can infer that it’s going to rain.

When you read, you must learn to make inferences about the information you’re reading. Writers don’t always say things directly. Instead, they give you information and you must make inferences based on what they tell you.

For example, carefully read each of the following sentences. What can you infer from each one?

Unlike her classmates, Lucille has good taste in clothes.

Martha slammed the door after she got off the phone with Brian.

Years ago, Nathan and Caroline had been friends.

From the first sentence, you can infer that Lucille’s classmates don’t have good taste in clothes. They are unlike Lucille, who supposedly does have good taste. If you read between the words in the second sentence, you’ll probably infer that Martha and Brian argued on the phone. Martha showed her frustration by slamming the door. In the third sentence, the inference is that Nathan and Caroline used to be friends, but aren’t any longer.

Now let’s take inference beyond the sentence level to a paragraph. As you read the following paragraph, think about what you can infer from the words.

Paint was peeling from the siding of the farmhouse. Several of the windows were broken, and the shutters that weren’t missing looked as if they were ready to fall off. The boards of the porch groaned and creaked as Jake Wolfe stepped onto them. Looking left and right, Jake noticed several things immediately. The front screen door was hanging open, drifting back and forth in the breeze. There were deep scratches in the wood around the latch, and the door was slightly ajar. One thing was clear. If there was someone inside, whoever it was had probably not been welcome. Wolfe reached into his jacket and pulled his revolver from its holster. Slowly, with one foot, he pushed the front door open and peered into the gloom.

What can you infer about the farmhouse? Clearly, it’s old and not well cared for. Chances are it may be deserted. That inference makes sense because it’s based on the details provided.

What else can you infer about the farmhouse? The condition at the front door gives you some clues. The screen door is open. The front door latch may have been forced open since there are deep scratches around it. Also, the front door is open, which means there may be someone inside who has broken into the place. The evidence (the open screen door and the scratches around the lock) helps you to draw a conclusion (that someone may be inside).

Finally, what can you infer about Jake Wolfe? That’s less clear. Since he’s carrying a revolver, he may be a police officer or a private detective with a permit to carry a weapon. He may even be a criminal or perhaps the owner of the property. As you can tell from studying this paragraph, sometimes you can make clear inferences, and other times you may have to guess about information until you learn more.

Evidence is information that supports a conclusion. A conclusion is what you decide based on evidence or opinion.

Here’s another paragraph to study. Pay close attention to the details it provides.

If you want to make sure you do a horrible job when you take tests, go ahead and panic. The more negatively you think, the more negatively you are likely to perform. The more your blood and energy goes to preparing to bolt from the room, the less is available for your brain—the part that knows the answers to the test questions. In other words, the more you worry about something happening (failing the test), the more likely you are to achieve it (failing the test).

Based on the preceding paragraph, try to determine what words are missing in the following paragraph.

One of the worst things students can do when faced with a test is to _______. If a person is upset and worried, the _______ goes to their extremities to help them get ready to run, instead of to their _______ where it’s needed most.

Did you have trouble filling in the blanks? If you did, reread the paragraph. You probably filled in the first and third blank spaces easily (panic and brain). But did you notice that the second blank space could be filled with either blood or energy? When you make inferences, you often have to be much more creative. Making inferences requires reading between the lines and then drawing conclusions from clues or evidence that implies something not said directly.

Separating Fact from Opinion

A fact is information that can be proved with evidence.An opinion is what someone thinks or believes about something.

Another skill to use as you read is separating fact from opinion. A fact is information that can be proved or disproved based on evidence. If someone tells you that a diving board is 10 feet above the water, you can check that with a tape measure. If your friend tells you that the weekday hours at the library are 9:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M., you can check that by calling the library or by reading the hours as they’re posted on the library door. The stated library hours are a fact. If you hear on the radio news that an auto accident occurred at the corner of Orchard and Vine on Tuesday, you can check. If the facts check out, you can say that the accident really happened.

Not all facts are that easy to prove, of course. For example, you might learn in a science course that the Sun is 93,000,000 miles from Earth. You might also learn that Earth orbits the Sun once a year. While you can’t check these facts personally, you can learn how scientists have learned these facts. Therefore, you can accept them as facts until you find real evidence to the contrary. The main point is that a fact is something that can be proved.

By contrast, an opinion is not a fact. Rather, an opinion is based on the way people view or feel about a topic. Opinions may be based on fact, but they may also be based on false information or simply on a person’s emotions or preferences. For example, suppose Maryann tells you that grape jam tastes terrible. That’s her opinion. It’s not a fact, because some people like grape jam and think it’s delicious. When you read, whether you read a newspaper, a magazine, an email, a report, or anything else, don’t assume you’re reading facts. Writers often insert their own opinions into their writing in order to convince their readers of something.

Here are several examples that illustrate the difference between fact and opinion:

Fact: The American flag is red, white, and blue.

Opinion: More Americans should display the American flag on their homes.

From observation and experience, you know that the American flag is red, white, and blue. However, whether more Americans should display the flag on their homes is an opinion. Some people may disagree with that idea.

Fact: Teddy bears are stuffed toys that look like small bears.

Opinion: Teddy bears are cuddly and cute.

Both sentences are statements. However, the first statement is a fact and the second is an opinion. Can you see why? The first sentence states facts (things that can be checked) about teddy bears. The second statement, however, tells how someone feels about teddy bears, so it’s an opinion.

Fact: The car she bought is a blue 2015 Ford Mustang.

Opinion: Ford Mustangs are the best cars on the road.

Fact: The bridesmaid wore a light pink satin dress with dark pink trim.

Opinion: The bridesmaid’s dress was much too expensive.

Fact: Carolyn is entering ninth grade this year.

Opinion: Carolyn spends too much time at the gym.

Read and compare the two paragraphs in the box below. The first paragraph states only facts, while the second paragraph is mainly opinion. In the second paragraph, sentences that are opinions are italicized. In addition, clue words or phrases that signal an opinion are underlined.

These two paragraphs tell about the same town council meeting, yet they’re quite different. The first paragraph just states the facts. The second gives the writer’s opinion.

Detecting Bias

Bias refers to a strong emotional preference for one viewpoint or another. Many opinions reveal a bias. A bias chooses one point of view and opposes other possible viewpoints. As you read, you must learn to separate fact from bias.

Bias and opinions are very much alike, but opinions tend to include words and phrases such as I believe, I feel, or should. Bias, on the other hand, is typically presented as fact. It presents ideas with prejudice in order to convince others. Identifying bias requires careful reading, thinking, and sometimes even research.

Speakers often try to convince you of something they feel strongly about. Often these speakers are biased toward their position on an issue and may therefore present their case in a skewed manner. Listeners must attempt to remove the biases from the information they receive.

Everyone has opinions—and that’s okay! For example, some people feel that mixing mayonnaise and peanut butter to make a sandwich sounds disgusting—while others claim it’s delicious. Some people feel it’s wrong to drive large pickup trucks. They say these vehicles burn too much gasoline and pollute the air. Others love these vehicles and believe it’s fine to drive them. Each one of these examples represents an opinion. When these opinions are presented as fact rather than as personal beliefs, problems may result.

A bias, like any opinion, is based on the way a person interprets information. Suppose I show you a picture of a man in an overcoat. The man is walking out of a restaurant. He’s slumped forward a bit and has his hat pulled down to hide his face. You might feel the man in the picture looks like a bad guy. You might even suggest he’s a mobster. Someone else might look at the same picture and decide the man is troubled about something. Maybe he just lost his job. Still another person might decide that the man is walking with his head down because it’s cold and windy. How people look at anything—or anybody—depends on their perspectives.

Here are two questions to ask yourself to help detect bias in material that you read:

(1) Are the statements logically related?

One way to detect bias is to determine if one statement logically follows from the one before it. If it doesn’t, the two statements are most likely not logically related. This could indicate that the author has jumped to conclusions based on bias. Here’s an example: The old elementary school is in need of repairs. Therefore, we need to raise taxes.

Can you figure out why these two statements aren’t logically related? Well, there may already be money available for making repairs to the elementary school. It doesn’t necessarily follow that because the school needs repairs that taxes have to be raised. By contrast, the following statements are logically related: The old elementary school is in need of repairs. Since there’s not enough money in the budget to make the repairs, we need to raise taxes.

Now, let’s look at a sample paragraph. Read it carefully and see if you can detect evidence of bias.

(1) Several citizens of Bay City have complained that their property taxes are unfair. (2) Three citizens wrote letters to the town Commissioner of Revenue stating that they were taxed on an unfair appraisal of the value of their homes. (3) Responding to these complaints, Mayor Garrett Brown stated yesterday that he will order an investigation of tax records. (4) In my opinion, there should be an independent investigation of the town tax records, since it’s obvious that Garrett Brown is not to be trusted.

The first three sentences in this paragraph are statements of fact. They can be proved from evidence. However, the fourth sentence shows bias. How can you tell? The first clue is the phrase In my opinion, which indicates that this is not necessarily a fact. The main clue, however, is that the writer gives no evidence to prove that Garrett Brown is not to be trusted. In addition, the statement “Garrett Brown is not to be trusted” doesn’t follow naturally from the previous statement, “there should be an independent investigation of the town tax records.” The two statements aren’t logically related, indicating that the writer probably has a bias against Mayor Brown.

(2) Does the writer use loaded words?

To understand the concept of loaded words, think about the following sentences.

Libby complained about working such long hours.

Libby grumbled about working such long hours.

Libby whined about working such long hours.

The words complained, grumbled, and whined are synonyms that mean about the same thing. From each sentence, you learn that Libby doesn’t like working long hours. However the three words—complained, grumbled, and whined—give you a different feeling. The word complained is relatively neutral. When people complain, they’re simply saying they’re unhappy about something. The word grumbled, on the other hand, sends a different message. You may now picture Libby muttering under her breath and frowning a lot. When someone is grumbling, you’re more likely to think of that person as expressing anger. Finally, the word whining presents a different feeling entirely, as whining is usually considered childish behavior. A whiner complains like a child.

Words like grumbled and whined are called loaded words—they carry strong feelings or emotions. Writers often use loaded words to get readers to respond with an emotion. As you read, keep in mind that authors will use loaded words to evoke an emotion from you. It may be to get you to buy something, to convince you to vote in a particular way, or to get you to act in a certain way. Those loaded words may also be designed to attack a person or a person’s ideas.

Advertisements often include loaded words to convince people to buy a particular product or service.

Loaded words are also used to persuade people to interpret things in a certain way. See if you can pick out the loaded words in the ad in the adjoining figure. Words like bargain, free, fine, quality, and guaranteed are very common in commercial messages. They’re loaded words that are intended to influence you. The writer of the ad in the box below wants to persuade you that you can find good furniture at low prices when you shop at Franklin Furniture.

To influence means to try to convince someone of something. Words may be used to influence your opinions.

Now, read the following three sentences and think about how each may be aimed at influencing your point of view on a local campaign for the state legislature.

The candidates have different views on gun control.

The candidates are split over the issue of gun control.

The candidates stand in bitter opposition over the issue of gun control.

The first sentence is neutral. It simply states that the two candidates have different views about gun control. The second sentence uses the word split. That word suggests that the candidates’ opinions on gun control are very different. Split is a loaded word. The final sentence suggests that both candidates have very strong feelings about gun control. The loaded word here is bitter.

A word or statement is neutral if it isn’t meant to make readers feel a strong emotion.

For a final example of bias, read the paragraphs in the box below.

Both of the accounts in the box above contain a bias. However, the difference between the two paragraphs is in how the writers are biased. The writer of Version 1 is obviously biased in favor of the Jefferson High Bees. He sees the victory over North Cross as evidence that the Bees will have a winning season. But predicting the future is always risky. Making a prediction based on one game shows bias. It’s hard, after all, to decide how a whole season will turn out based on only one game. The writer of Version 2 is also biased. However, his bias leans toward the North Cross team. He expresses his opinion that North Cross wasn’t performing as well as it could and that it will improve as the season progresses. That shows his bias.

Bias is often present in things you read. Sometimes authors intentionally insert their bias, and sometimes the bias is unintentional. And bias isn’t necessarily good or bad. Bias supported by evidence makes more sense than bias based simply on opinions and feelings. Making an effort to detect bias in the material you read helps you to understand a writer’s point of view. It also keeps you alert for opinions that don’t make sense or have no support.

Drawing Conclusions

Making inferences, separating fact from opinion, and spotting bias helps you to draw conclusions from what you read. Conclusions are what you decide based on the information you’re given. Conclusions may be useful or not useful, and they may be based on facts or on opinions.

Consider these examples:

You read a newspaper article about the rising cost of homes. If the article includes facts, you can draw a conclusion about why home costs are rising. You draw a conclusion when you form an opinion by thinking about facts.

You read an online article about your favorite performer. The article talks about her background, her music, her current romances, and the problems she has had with drinking. From what’s written, you might conclude that she’s struggling to recover from alcohol addiction. The article may not say that in so many words, but you may infer it by reading between the lines and coming to that conclusion.

An important election is coming up. You want to learn about the candidates and what they stand for. You begin to read articles in the newspaper and online, and you listen to newscasts and political debates. After all this, you draw some conclusions and determine which candidate you want to vote for. Is your decision based on fact? Is it based on what the candidates have said? Have you taken their opinions as fact, or have you carefully separated the two? When you make decisions based on your reading, make sure you know that you can trust the material you’re reading.

To get some practice in drawing conclusions, read the paragraph in in the box below. As you do, try to draw a conclusion about the season of the year.

Some facts in the paragraph in the box above don’t tell you about the season. For example, that Maxwell stood at his kitchen window is a fact, but it doesn’t refer to the season. Also, the sun shines on the grass during most, if not all, seasons of the year.

Here are the facts that directly suggest the season:

Crocuses are sprouting.

A dogwood tree has new leaf buds.

These two facts point to the fact that it’s spring. But what about the robin searching for a worm? That fact alone would not indicate that it’s spring since robins look for worms in both spring and summer. However, in the context of the paragraph, you can conclude that it’s spring.

Let’s look at another example to give you some practice in drawing conclusions from what’s written. Read the paragraph in the box below. As you do, think about the answer to this question: Is space travel between the stars practical?

Any conclusion you draw should be based on the facts in the paragraph. You would have to consider that light travels at an incomprehensible speed. You would also have to calculate the number of years it would take a spaceship to get from Earth to the closest star. Thinking about that, you might draw some preliminary conclusions. A preliminary conclusion is one that helps you get to a final conclusion. For example, a starship would have to be quite large because it would need to carry everything the people needed to live for many years. In fact, the people on the spaceship would probably be in space long enough to have children and grandchildren. When the grandchildren arrived, they would know nothing about Earth. The final conclusion most people would come to is that travel between the stars isn’t practical at this point.

Some Final Thoughts

As you conclude this assignment, consider these final suggestions for making inferences and drawing conclusions:

Locate the facts in what you read, separating fact from opinion. Some statements may look like facts, even though they aren’t. For example, the sentence “The moon is made of green cheese” is stated as though it were a fact. Sometimes all it takes is common sense to see that a statement like this isn’t a fact. On the other hand, some things stated as facts may or may not be facts. If you read “The price of fresh eggs has dropped 10 percent over the past year,” you might have to do some research to see if the statement is actually a fact.

While sorting out facts from opinions, remember that opinions often reveal bias. Including some facts but omitting others can also indicate bias. For example, suppose you read this statement: “Mayor Brown has been charged with tax evasion.” However, elsewhere you read that official records show that Mayor Brown paid his taxes as required. You can now infer that the charge against Mayor Brown is an opinion that isn’t based on the facts.

As you sort out facts from opinions and look for bias, make inferences by reading between the lines. Look for what the writer is implying by the way he or she writes. By doing all of these things, you’ll be better able to draw accurate conclusions.

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Conclusion- What you decide based on evidence or opinion

Fact- Information that can be proved with evidence

Influence- To try to convince someone of something

Neutral- A word or statement that is not meant to make readers feel a strong emotion

Opinion- What someone thinks or believes about something

Evidence- Information that supports a conclusion

KEY POINTS

When you make an inference , you come to a conclusion based on what you know

When you read you must earn to make inferences about the information you are reading

Evidence is information that supports a conclusion. A conclusion is what you decide based on evidence or opinion

A fact is information that can be proved with evidence

Bias refers to a strong emotional peferance for ones viewpoint or another

Good readers learn to look for facts, opinion, and bias in the material they read

Loaded words carry strong feelings or emotions

A word or statement is neutral if it is not meant to make readers feel a strong emotion