THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY AND METHODS.

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The hypothetico-deductive method:

Positivists believe this to be the most scientific method of finding accurate information, otherwise known as 'scientific knowledge'.

1.) Background reading

& personal experience-study & everyday obsv. (Areas of interest)

2.) Formation (hypothesis)-sociologist

formulates casual link (two events)

3.) Appropriate

form of study (isolate variables): questionnaire, interview & observation

4.) Collecting

(data): strict rules (Qs and Int.s carried out®validity

and reliability)

5.) Analysing

the data: Statistical models- ‘tests of confidence’ accuracy

6.) Confirming,

modifying or rejecting hypothesis: WEAKNESSES

7.) Theory

formation/confirmation: best explanation reliance until others improve on it

Theoretical

approaches linked to positivism and quantitative research methods:

Society largely determines how we think and

act-puppets of society (Marxist basis of

theory) – link to the influence of the mass media and class as a dominant

factor of influence

Society only exists (beliefs and

activities-individuals interacting) – creative actors making society (Link to Guffman (1959) and his dramaturgical

model)

Positivists; some form (structure); structural

model : MAIN STRUCTURAL THEORIES:

Structural functionalism:

Parsons (1951): social facts-objective ‘facts’.

Classic study-Suicide: A Study In

Sociology- statistics on suicide; clear patterns (uncovered)

Marxism

‘Dialectical materialism’: economic and social

laws (govern human behaviour); laws (dominant)

Positivist ideas: modern Marxist (quantitative

and qualitative ideas)

Criticism:

Positivism largely linked: structural model

(heavy focus towards to economic influence, failure to ‘think outside the box’ )

Counter-argument:

Social constructionist perspective: symbolic

interactionism

Blumer (1962): closely linked (labelling theory)

Individuals work: society created by activities

people and rules guide people

Positivism: deductive framework, social

constructionists (inductive one); observations (general statements vs. strong

evidence within theories)

Quantitative research: the favored method

of positivists:

Surveys, questionnaires and case studies

Surveys:

Cross-sectional surveys: ‘snapshot’; gather

information @ one particular time.

Useful:

finding out info. (part. Topic); quick and results collated and analysed

(generalizable)

HOWEVER:

1.)

Indicators/questions: measure attitude (accurate) ®research not be valid

2.)

Not provide information (period of time)

Longitudinal surveys:

Quantitative sociologists (interested in change);

longitudinal survey

Clear, ongoing image changes (attitudes and

actions)

Focus on research:

Parker et al. (1998) – A longitudinal

survey:

North-West

Longitudinal Study; 700 young people for five years, aged 14-18. Assess how

‘ordinary’ young people 1990s, developed attitudes and behaviour (relation to

availability: illegal drugs, alongside alcohol and tobacco).

Self-report

questionnaire: administered

personally (researchers). Start (research)-sample representative: gender, class and ethnicity). Attrition

disproportionate.

KEY WORDS:

Cross-sectional

survey: Survey conducted (one time), no attempt follow up (people surveyed)

Epistemological:

Theories (knowledge)

Hypothetico-deductive

model: Research process (assoc. Physical sciences used by positivists)

Indicator:

Measurable social phenomenon; immeasurable concept, e.g. church attendance to

measure religious beliefs

Inductive:

Way of reasoning, starts from particular and works towards the general. Social research-identifying patterns and

trends; developing hypotheses and theories based on them.

Longitudinal

survey: Survey carried out over considerable number of years (same group of

people

Reliability:

Research; strictly comparable

Social

fact: Used by Durkheim; certain objective ‘facts’ exist in society; not

influenced by individuals

Survey:

Large-scale piece (quantitative research) ; general statements (particular

population)

Validity:

Show what research sets out.

Theory and interpretive research (Weber and verstehen):

Durkheim’s attitude; society (explored similar

way-physical sciences)

Weber: society constituted thinking, (variety –

influences).

Weber: defined sociology as a ‘science which

attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order to arrive at

causal explanations.’

Symbolic interactionalism and labelling

theory:

Symbolic

interactionism

Bulmer (1962): social objects, events and

situations, all interpreted by people (various socially learned ways); people

respond (learned meanings)

Structuration theory:

Giddens: Structuration theory (1984)

Research (Giddens): must understand motivations

and actions (indv.) before see how structures can ‘exist’

Good example: (difference) between objective

facts and perception of facts. Foster’s (1995) ethnographic study (housing

estate)-blocks of flats (East London). Objectively, estate had a high crime

rate (official stats.). Residents-not perceive threatening, existence of

‘informal social control’, PEOPLE EXPECTED CERTAIN LEVEL OF CRIME RATE.

KEY WORDS:

Ethnography:

Describe work anthropologists (study simple, small-scale societies), living

with people and observing their daily lives. Used by sociologists (describe

modern-day observation studies)

Meaning:

Word used by Blumer to describe the sense people make of a particular situation

Phenomenological

approaches (i.e. interactionism): stress how people would perceive and

interact with one another.

Verstehen:

Term first used by Weber in sociology, role of sociology understand partly by

seeing through the eyes of those who are being studied.

Postmodernist research:

Postmodernism: positive

force (three main ways-research

relevant):

1.) Introduced

new methods and approaches to research

2.) Introduced

different topics (study)

3.) Encouraged

people-speak for themselves, allowing their narratives to stand without

necessarily interpreting them.

Deconstruction: a new method:

Baudrillard (1998): ‘narratives’ affect how we act/interact

with other people. Uncover the linkages and possible patterns-underline narratives.

Foucault: process

of deconstruction like activities of an archaeologist (soc. carefully digs down

layer after layer) ®explore

construction of narratives.

Postmodernist researcher concerned look @ how

particular narratives emerge at different times.

EXAMPLES

OF POSTMODERN RESEARCH:

Reanalysing sociological concepts (Youth

culture):

Redhead (1993): youth culture has ‘no meaning’.

Y.C. is a complex and ever-changing mixture of influences

Redhead uses secondary data in his work, also

uses writing of young sociology students (drawing upon current experiences of

clubbing).

FEMINISM

AND METHODS:

Current

fragmentation of sociology, intellectual critiques

1970s: Firestone (1970) and Millett (1970): knowledge

and methods are linked to gender. Men and women have different experiences and

different starting points(construct knowledge)

Harding (1987): three key elements (feminist

methodology):

1.) Women’s

experiences: a new resource:

Most research devised and conducted by male

sociologists, resulted in concentration on issues of interest to males. Women

(different interests and perspectives, open up new areas for sociological

investigation).

2.) New purposes of social science: for women:

Purpose (feminist sociological research):

improve position of women. Committed and

open about its commitment – feminist standpoint.

3.) Locating the researcher in the same

critical plane as the subjects:

Bridge the gap between female researchers

and female subjects. Feminist researcher must examine all her ‘assumptions,

beliefs and behaviors’. ‘Class, race and gender’ (subject) stated.

Feminist researcher not appear ‘as an

invisible, anonymous voice of authority, but as a real, historical individual

with concrete, specific desires and interests.’

ABOVE IDEAS led to...in-depth

interviewing/discussion and participant observation (particularly favored in

feminist research).

‘Women are more able to understand society

than men and therefore their accounts are to be preferred.’

FOCUS

GROUPS:

Fem. Soc. Use focus groups (research).

Wilkinson (1999)-method fits ethos (feminism).

1st: F.G. research less artificial

emphasizes group interaction (normal part of social life). Women more likely to

divulge true ‘lived experiences’

2nd: F.R. minimize differences (power

and status). F.G. even out the power (group of women chance take control over

the discussion).

3rd: Madriz (2000): F.G. consisted of

‘marginalized’ women-‘lower-socioeconomic-class women of colour’, able to make

sense of their ‘experience of vulnerability and subjugation’

FEMINIST

ETHNOGRAPHY:

Reinharz (1992): most effective way study women use

ethnographic methods. Allow full documentation (women’s lives).

Allows researchers to see activities (viewpoint

of women).

Less exploitative.

Skeggs (2001):

In her ethnographic research she was seeking to ‘emphasize

the words, voices and lives of the women. ‘

QUALITATIVE

INTERVIEWING:

In-depth interview (most used tool of research)-Bryman

(2004)

Oakley (1981): two women invl. Engaged (discussion)

based on equality-interviewee (equal in power)- equal right decide on direction

of discussion.

Own research interviews (transition into motherhood).

Oakley asked questions on a range of issues by the respondents. Felt by

replying and advising the women, fulfilling criteria (fem. R.M.)

FOCUS ON

RESEARCH:

(Bev Skeggs(1997)-Formations of

class and gender):

Beverly Skeggs studies 83 White w-c young women

(period of 12 years)-ethnographic measures (participant observation and

in-depth interviews). Research BEGAN studying women-health and social course @

college in North-West of England. Skeggs followed them through their education,

employment and family lives. Skeggs (work-feminist), politically committed

providing ‘marginalized’ women to express themselves, wished to show how young

women’s perceptions of the society they encountered influenced their actual

behaviour. Skeggs argues she didn’t exploit the women (own career benefit),

that her research gave her ‘subjects’ a sense of self-worth. That she ‘provided

a mouthpiece against injustice, particularly with regard to disclosures of

violence, child abuse and sexual harassment.’

KEY

TERMS:

Deconstruction:

breaking down of a taken-for-granted subject to uncover the assumptions within

it.

Transgress:

cross accepted academic boundaries.

Positivism and quantitative research methods.

Interpretive sociology and qualitative methods.

Postmodern and feminist methodologies.