Flashcards
Human Development
Cards in this deck (101)
- 1Development is defined as:The systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death.
- 2These systematic changes occur in three broad areas:1. physical development
2. cognitive development
3. psychosocial development - 3Theories of how humans grow and develop fall into the following broad categories:a. learning: including behavioral theories, social learning theories, and information-processing theories
b. cognitive theories
c. psychoanalytic including neo-Freudian and ego psychology theories
d. humanistic: psychology and self theories - 4Human growth and development changes can be viewed as:a. qualitative (change in structure-sexual development) or quantitative (change in number-intellectual)
b. continuous (changers are sequential and cannot be easily separated--personality development) or discontinuous (certain changes can be separated--language development)
c. mechanistic (a reduction of all behavior to common elements--instinctual behavior) or organismic (there is a change due to new stages--moral or ethical development) - 5Self-ConceptYour perception of your qualities, attributes, and traits
- 6Developmental Conceptsa. Nature vs. Nurture
b. Genotype and Phenotype
c. Tabula Rasa
d. Plasticity
e. Resiliency - 7Define a. Nature vs. Nurture b. Genotype and Phenotype c. Tabula Rasa d. Plasticity e. Resiliencya. Nature includes genetic and hereditary Factors
Nurture: includes learning and environmental factors
b. Genotype includes the genetic (inherited) makeup of the individual
Phenotype includes the way an individual's genotype is expressed through physical and behavioral characteristics
C. Tabula Rasa is John Locke's view that children begin as a 'blank slate' acquiring their characteristics through experience
D. Plasticity for most individuals lifespan development is plastic repressing an easy and smooth transition from one stage to the next
E. Resiliency is the ability to adapt effectively despite the experience of adverse circumstances. For example, some children, despite experiencing potentially damaging conditions and circumstances, seem to suffer few consequences - 8Abraham MaslowA Humanistic Psychologist
who developed the 'Hierarchy of Needs'
People are always motivated to higher-order needs:
Food/Water to
Security/Safety to
Belonging/ Love to
Self-Esteem/ Prestige/ Status to
Self-Actualization
We go from filling our needs from the physiological level to the social level to the cognitive level - 9Arnold GesellA Maturationist who believed in a child's growth and development was GENETICALLY PRE-ORDAINED given a normal environment.
Children 'BLOOMED' in an orderly and predictable pattern with little influence from surroundings including parents - 10Robert HavighurstIdentified stages of growth--each one requiring completion of the last one for success and happiness.
Developmental Tasks: arise from physical maturation, influences from culture and society, and desires and values of the person
Developmental Tasks are the skills, knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes that an individual has to acquire through physical maturation, social learning, and personal effort - 11John Watson and B.F. SkinnerBehaviorism, a learning approach. Behaviorists believe the environmental manipulates biological and psychological drives and needs resulting in development.
- 12BehaviorismLearning and Behavior changes are the results of rewards and punishments. A reward is a positive-reinforcing stimulus which maintains or increases a behavior. When a behavior results in the termination of a positive-reinforcing stimulus or the beginning of a negative stimulus we have punishment. Such a behavior should weaken or drop out. We grow, develop, and learn through the nature of experience--the rewards and punishments we receive
- 13Edward ThorndikeLaw of Effect
- 14Law of EffectDeveloped by Edward Thorndike this law, which states when a stimulus-response connection is followed by a reward (reinforcement), that connection is strengthened. In other words, a behavior's consequences determine the probability or its being repeated.
- 15Conditioning Principlesa. Classical Conditioning: food--salivation: bell--salivation
b. Operant Conditioning: pick up toys--get a hug or a cookies
c. Reinforcement Schedule: this schedule can be continuous or variable
Behaviors established through variable or intermittent reinforcement are tougher to extinguish - 16Conditioning Principles CONTINUEDd. fixed ratio: reinforce after a fixed number of responses
e. variable ratio: reinforce, on the average, after every nth (e.g., 5th) response
f. fixed interval: reinforce after a fixed period of time
g. Variable Interval: reinforce, on the average, after the nth (e.g., 3rd) minute
h. Spontaneous recovery: after a rest period, the conditioned response reappears when the conditioned stimulus is again presented
i. Stimulus generalization: once a response has been conditioned, stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus are also likely to elicit the conditioned response
We can shape behavior through successive approximations - 17Psychoanalytic Approach and Psychosexual Development (FREUD)There is an interaction between our internal needs/ forces and the environment
- 18Freud identified five stages of developmenta. oral (birth to 18 months)
b. anal (2 to 3 years)
c. Phallic (3 to 5 years)--has the Oedipal (son attraction to mother) and electra (daughter attraction to father) complexes
d. latency (6 to 12 years)
e. genital (12 to 19; others have said it never ends)
* The libido is the basic energy or force of life. It consists of life and death instincts
Other psychoanalytic concepts: castration anxiety, penis envy, pleasure principle, and reality principle - 19Erogenous Zonesthe areas of the bodily excitation such as the mouth, anus, and genitals
- 20Defense MechanismsThe unconscious protective processes that help us control primitive emotions and anxiety
- 21Define Defense Mechanismsa. Repression
b. Projection
c. Reaction Formation
d. Rationalization
e. Displacement
f. Introjection
g. Regression
h. Denial
i. Sublimation - 22RepressionRejecting from conscious though (denying or forgetting) the impulse or idea that provokes anxiety
- 23ProjectionAvoiding the conflict within oneself by ascribing the ideas or motives to someone else
- 24Reaction FormationExpressing a motive or impulse in a way that is directly opposite what was originally intended
- 25RationalizationProviding a reason for a behavior and thereby concealing the true motive or reason for the behavior
- 26DisplacementSubstituting a different object or goal for the impulse or motive that is being expressed
- 27IntrojectionIdentifying through fantasy the expression of some impulse or motive
- 28RegressionRetreating to earlier or more primitive (childlike) forms of behavior
- 29DenialRefusing to see something that is a fact or true in reality
- 30SublimationMay be viewed as a positive defense mechanism wherein anxiety or sexual tension or energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities such as work
- 31Erik EriksonIdentified eight stages wherein a psychosocial crisis or task is to be mastered
- 32Erik EriksonPsychosocial Stages
The stages, corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue are:
1. Trust vs. mistrust (HOPE)
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (WILL: a sense of self)
3. Initiative vs. guilt (PURPOSE: goal setting)
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (COMPETENCE)
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity: ability to commit)
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (LOVE)
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (CARE: investment in the future)
8. Integrity vs. Despair (WISDOM) - 33ERIK ERIKSON PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGESPsychosocial Stages
The stages, corresponding ages and resulting ego virtue are:
1. Trust vs. mistrust (HOPE) birth to 18 months
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (WILL: a sense of self) 18 months to 3 years
3. Initiative vs. guilt (PURPOSE: goal setting) 3 to 6
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (COMPETENCE) 6 to 11
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity: ability to commit) adolescence
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (LOVE) early adulthood
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (CARE: investment in the future) middle adulthood
8. Integrity vs. Despair (WISDOM) later adulthood - 34Jean PiagetCognitive Development (Intelligence)
- 35According to Piaget we inherit two tendenciesOrganization and Adaption
Organization: how we systemize and organize mental processes and knowledge
Adaption: is the adjustment to the environment - 36Jean Piaget AdaptionAdaption:
Two Processes
1. Assimilation: modifying the relevant environmental events so they can be incorporated into the individual's existing structure.
2. Accommodation: modifying the organization of the individual in response to environmental events - 37Jean Piaget's SchemaAnother word for a mental structure that processes information, perceptions, and experiences
- 38Piaget Four Stages of Cognitive Development1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2): child differentiates self from objects; can think of an object not actually present; seeks stimulation
2. Preoperational (2 to 7): language development is occurring; child is egocentric; has difficulty taking another's point of view; classifies objects by one feature
3. Concrete Operational (7 to 11); begins logical operations; can order objects (small to large; first to last); understands conversation.
4. Formal Operational (11 to 15): moves toward abstract thinking; can test hypotheses; logical problem solving can occur - 39Lawrence KohlbergMoral Development: thinking and reasoning are involved.
He identified three levels relating to the relationship between self and society:
a. Precoventional (stage 1 and 2)
b. Conventional (stage 3 and 4)
c. Postconventional (stage 5 and 6) - 40Daniel LevinsonWrote the Season's of a Man's Life
He identified three major transitions/ times occurring between four major eras of life
a. early adult transitions (17 to 22)
b. mid-life transitions (40 to 45)
c. late adult transitions (60 to 65)
In adulthood: the individual copes with three sets of developmental tasks:
a. build, modify, and enhance life structure
b. form and modify single components of the life structure such as: life dream, occupation, love-marriage, family relationships, mentor, and forming mutual relationships
c. tasks to become more individuated
Levinson believed that the majority of the men he studied experienced midlife crisis, a time of questioning their life structure including their career. This occurred in the transition period of age 40 to 45. - 41Urie Brofenbrennertook an ecological approach to the study of human development (systems)
- 42Social-Learning ModelsThese models see the importance of social environment and cognitive factors.
Go beyond behaviorism because we think about the connections between our behaviors and consequences - 43Albert BanduraSocial-Learning Model
- 44Bandura's Social Learning ModelOne of the central concepts of this cognitive-behavioral approach is self-efficacy, the belief that we can perform some behavior or task.
- 45Bandura's Self-EfficacyExplains how people change. One's self-efficacy is facilitated through four mechanisms which are: 1. modeling after others' behavior
2. vicarious experience, i.e., watching? others perform the behavior receiving
3. verbal persuasion from others that one can do a task, and lastly, paying attention to one own
4. physiological states such as emotional arousal or anxiety involved in doing the behavior - 46William PerryDeveloped a scheme for intellectual development and ethical development
- 47William Perry Intellectual and Ethical DevelopmentThree General Categories and Nine Positions
a. Dualism
i. authorities know
ii. there are true authorities and wrong authorities
iii. good authorities may know but may not know everything yet
b. Relativism is Discovered
i. there may not be right or wrong answers; uncertainty may be OK
ii. all knowledge may be relative
iii. in an uncertain world, I will have to make decisions
C. Commitment in Relativism
i. initial commitment
ii. several commitments--and balancing them
iii. commitments evolve, and they may be contradictory - 48Theories of how women developEvolving.
Many arguing that gender stereotyping, male-imposed standards, and the devaluation of feminine qualities have made women second-class citizens. - 49Nancy ChodorowIn the mid-70's one of the first to speak out against the masculine boas found in psychoanalytic theory
- 50Jean Baker MillerWrote Toward a New Psychology of Women, indicated that a large part of women's lives has been spent helping others develop emotionally, intellectually, and socially. This 'care taking' is a central concept differentiating the development of women from men
- 51Judith JordanWith others affiliated with the Stone Center, Wellesley College, presented a developmental theory of women in 1991 which was referred to as self-in-relation theory.
- 52Judith Jordan's Self-in-Relation Theory Relational-Cultural TheoryIncludes:
a. People grow toward relationships throughout life
b. mature functioning: characterized by mutuality and deepening connections
c. psychological growth is characterized by involvement in complex and diversified relational networks
d. mutual empathy and empowerment are at the core of positive relationships
e. growth-fostering relationships require engagements to be authentic
f. growth-fostering relationships stimulate growth and change in all people
g. goals of development are characterized by an increasing ability to name and resist disconnections, sources of oppression, and obstacles to mutual relationships
This theory of development is now known as RELATIONAL-CULTURAL THEORY - 53Other Writer's who have addressed women's issues:Harriet Lerner (The Dance of Intimacy)
Carol Tavris (In the Mismeasure of Woman)
Carol Gilligan (In a Different Voice) - 54Gail SheehyShe wrote Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life
Passages are transitional periods between life stages and are different for most individuals - 55Spiritual DevelopmentSome research indicates that over 90 percent of U.S. population has a belief in a divine power or force greater than oneself. Spirituality is viewed more broadly than belief in a religion. In any case, spirituality may directly influence clients in their view of self, relationships, worldview, as well as nature and cause of perceived problems. For many individuals, their spirituality is a key component in their definition of being whole and of wellness.
- 56Spiritual Development Continued...Counselors must be willing and able to address and identify issues of spirituality important to the client's situation. They may have to acquire knowledge and the language to communicate effectively with clients who have a wide variety of spirituality issues and beliefs. Essentially, this process may reacquire counselors to examine their own spirituality.
- 57IntelligenceDefined as 'adaptive thinking or action' (PIAGET) or ability to think abstractly.
- 58Charles SpearmanBelieved there was a general intelligence and special abilities
- 59Louis ThurstoneIdentified several primary mental abilities:
Intelligence is not fixed or determined solely by genetics. One's environment, experiences, and cultural factors influence intelligence
Intelligence testing may be biased against those who have not had the opportunities to learn or experience those things the test measures - 60Emotional IntelligenceDaniel Goleman: Proposed that one component of intelligence can operate out of human emotions, that is, independently of the person's reasoning and thinking processes. This emotional intelligence is a learned developmental process beginning in infancy and proceeding to adulthood through varying levels of development. As emotionally intelligent person is self-motivated, empathic, grapes social signals and nonverbal messages, and develops strong interpersonal abilities
- 61PropinquityA concept that implies nearness or proximity.
For example, a partner, one is most likely to become involved with someone who lives nearby - 62Midlife CrisisStress may occur as an individual encounters various transitional periods/ stages. Although Levinson believes that most men experience midlife crisis, many writers do not. Both men and women may experience a painful self-evaluation process but not a crisis level
- 63List the theory associated with GlasserReality Therapy: People have physical needs such as food and shelter plus the need to feel worthwhile and be successful
- 64List the theory associated with AdlerIndividual psychology: people are essential good. Birth order determines much of a person's behavior
- 65List the theory associated with JungAnalytic psychology: people strive for self-fulfillment
- 66List the theory associated with SkinnerBehavioral/ cognitive behavioral modification: Humans are machines that cannot make freewill decisions. Behavior is learned from a person's environment and the reinforcement he receives from others
- 67List the theory associated with FranklExistential: people are good and rational, and have the freedom to choose their behavior
- 68List the theory associated with WilliamsonTrait- Factor: The potential for both good and bad is innate
- 69Describe Imprinting in terms of the work of Konrad LorenzImprinting refers to the way newly hatched ducks and geese instinctively follow the first moving object they see. This is usually the mother but may be any living or non-living thing.
- 70Konrad Lorenzworked with goslings and applied his results to the principle of "critical periods." "Critical Periods" is the concept that certain behaviors must be learned at specific stages of development or they may not be learned at all. Heredity and environment are both important in critical periods of development
- 71Describe the concept of Centrationin Piaget's pre operational stage is the focusing on one feature of an object while ignoring the rest of the object. An example would be seeing an alligator's teeth but not its eyes or nostrils
- 72Describe the concept of Egocentrismin Piaget's pre operational stage is a child's ability to see the world from only his own viewpoint. The child's viewpoint is current and not influenced by remembering features or details seen at an earlier time.
- 73Describe the concept of Epistemologyis the theory of knowledge. Piaget was a genetic epistemologist. His theory was that children learn from their own actions and experiences with their peers rather from adults.
- 74Describe the concept of Symbolic Schemain Piaget's term for language and symbolism becoming a part of play ruing pre operational stage when the child is two to seven years of age. This process allows a child to substitute one object for another, such as when a box becomes a car with a paper plate for the wheel.
- 75Define the term empiricistssubscribe to the doctrine of empiricism, which maintains that experience is the only source of knowledge. This doctrine was formulated by John Locke and is the forerunner of behaviorism.
- 76Define the term organicismis the theory that the total organization of an organism is determinant of life processes. The Gestalt psychologists, such as Kurt Goldstein subscribe to the theory. Psychodiagnostic is a type of testing that assesses how a patient's thinking and emotions may affect his or her behavior
- 77Explain epigenetictheory states an individual is formed by successive development of an unstructured eft rather than by the growth of a preformed entity. Kohlberg, Erikson, and Aslow used epigenetic principles in developing their theories of human development
- 78Explain Cephalocaudalmeans from head to tail and can be used to refer to the head of a fetus developing before the legs
- 79Explain In vivo desensitizationis the behavior therapy technique in which a person is gradually exposed to something he fears
- 80Explain Instinctualan adjective derived from instinct and refers to the behavior that is innate rather than learned
- 81Explain ethologythe study of animals in their natural environment and makes use of Darwinian theory. Ethology research findings can be applied to humans as "comparative psychology."
- 82Explain psychometricsis the design, administration and interpretation of tests that measure intelligence, aptitude and personality characteristics
- 83Explain psychopharmacologythe study of the effects of drugs on psychological functions
- 84John Bowlbybelieves in bonding with an adult before the age of three is vital if a person is to lead a normal social life. According to him, the lack of bonding, or a bond that is severed during infancy, can cause abnormal behavior or psychopathology. His opinion is that the mother should be the primary caregiver for the child with the father in the role of emotional supported for the mother
- 85Harry Harlowhis work with monkeys led him to believe attachment to be an innate tendency. He saw monkeys raised in isolation develop autistic and abnormal behavior. Placing those monkeys with normally reared ones could somewhat reverse those behaviors
- 86Discuss the difference between intelligence and emotional intelligence CARD 1A dictionary definition of intelligence is "the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge." It can also be though of as the ability to reason, think in abstract terms and understand abstract ideas, plan, and acquire language and knowledge.
- 87Discuss the difference between intelligence and emotional intelligence CARD 2Piaget's definition specified adaptive thinking or action. Intelligence is not determined solely by genetics; it also involves a person's environment, experiences, and culture. A major criticism of intelligence testing is that it is often culturally biased and measures things some people have not had the opportunity to learn.
- 88Discuss the difference between intelligence and emotional intelligence CARD 3Emotional intelligence according to Daniel Goleman is self-motivation and self- awareness, empathy, social awareness, and persistence. The emotionally intelligent person also has strong interpersonal skills
- 89List the theory associated with the theorist and their view of human nature: RogersPerson-Centered: people are essentially good and under the right conditions will move themselves toward self-actualization
- 90List the theory associated with the theorist and their view of human nature: BerneTransactional Analysis: Each person has the 3 ego states of parent, adult, and child
- 91List the theory associated with the theorist and their view of human nature: FreudPsychoanalysis: biological instincts and development through psychosexual stages control people
- 92List the theory associated with the theorist and their view of human nature: EllisRational Emotive Behavior Therapy: A person's instincts are both rational and irrational, but different reactions can be taught.
- 93List the theory associated with the theorist and their view of human nature: PerlsGestalt: people are whole and complete but are affected by their environment. Learning and change result from how a person organizes experience
- 94Define EMDREye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing- an information processing therapy that uses an eight phase approach to reduce the emotional stress of a distressing event or memory
- 95Define Unwelt, Mitwelt & Eigenweltin Existential philosophy the three components of the conscious experience of being alive- Unwelt is biological, Mitwelt is social, and Eigenwelt is psychological
- 96Define Parrotingthe counselor repeats what the client has said
- 97Define paraphrasingthe counselor rephrases what the client has said
- 98Define summarizingthe counselor sums up or review s what has happened in a session or in the course of the therapy
- 99Define Bibliotherapythe use of books or other written material as part of therapy
- 100Define Musterbationsabsolutist thinking by the client--the use of "musts, shoulds, and oughts"
- 101Define Awfulizationslooking at a situation or anticipating an event with irrational beliefs about how awful or difficult it is
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