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| Question | Answer |
| Bruce Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development | Bruce Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development ➢ 1965 Assumptions: • Teams go through a maturation or life cycle process. • The stages are inevitable for the team to grow. • The four life cycle stages are not necessarily of the same duration or intensity. • The team performs better when there is a higher level of unity (group cohesion) → productivity rises with every stage. |
| 1. Forming | • Team members tend to be both excited and anxious • There is uncertainty and lack of clarity on goals, norms, structures, roles and expectations • “Feeling each other out” – adaptive & conformist behaviour • Need for direction and clarity on goals and roles & responsibilities |
| 2. Storming | • The gap between expectations and reality becomes clear • There is confusion and frustration with regards to roles, goals, authority • Boundaries are tested • Subgroups may form (“us versus them”) • Struggle for attention, power and authority • Some progress on tasks |
| 3. Norming | • Understanding and appreciation of differences • Growing trust, respect, cohesion and harmony • Increasing clarity in roles, goals, tasks and structure • (Shared) values are lived • Increasing results: average to high • Willingness to share leadership, responsibilities and control • A “we” feeling emerges and energises • Conflicts are accepted and handled constructively |
| 4. Performing | • Strong shared sense of purpose. • Empowered team: interdependence, optimal productivity, continuous learning and improvement. • Relationships and communication based on trust, respect and openness. • Flexibility and shared leadership enable a quick response to new challenges. • Acknowledgement and appreciation of individual and team performance. High morale. • Open and integrative in relation to context and environment. |
| 5. Adjourning | • The project comes to an end and the team disbands • Team members may experience a sense of loss and/or positive anticipation about regaining their independence • Celebrate successes and capture best practices • Reflect, evaluate and reap the learning • Rituals mark and ease the transition |
| Belbin Team Roles |
Each team needs a leadership role, a creative role, and operational role. (Belbin team roles)
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Belbin (binary/octet-stream)
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| What is a project? | Characteristics: • It’s a unique endeavour • Temporary. With clear beginning and end • With a temporary project organisation • Agreed scope • Goal and defined project results • One sponsor |
| Project- based working | • Depending on the task and available expertise, you can improvise, work in routines, or work project based 1. Improvisation= Question focused, Ad hoc, Flexible, Process approach, Vague, Uncertain, New 2. Routine= Work oriented, continuous, effective, clear, certain, known 3. Project-oriented = Result oriented, effectivity, predictable, planning approach, relatively certain, wanted, step-by-step more clear |
| Project Management | = Application of methods, tools, techniques and competencies to a project. It is accomplished through processes and includes various phases of the project lifecycle: initiating, planning, executing, monitoring & controlling and closing. Each phase has deliverables to the stakeholders. |
| Project Manager | Leads and manages the execution of project activities and the completion of deliverables. He/ She gives direction to the project team, and reports progress directly to the sponsors. |
| PDCA Cycle |
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Pdca (binary/octet-stream)
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| Project success | The extent to which, within the set requirements and the agreed restrictions, the actual deliverable is in accordance with the result expected from various interest parties. |
| Project Management success | The appreciation of the project management results of various interest parties. |
| PROGRAM | is a group of projects managed in a coordinated way |
| Project Planning & Design | • WHAT to improve or change • HOW the project can bring about or contribute to the improvement or change • WHO will contribute to the project and who is affected by it • WHAT it will cost • By WHEN will the result be delivered • HOW to obtain the necessary resources • HOW to tell if you are achieving your desired results |
| Project management failure | |
| Activity-driven approach | |
| Change-driven/ Result-based approach | |
| Principles of Results-based approach | Develop projects based on thorough understanding of situation to improve • Clearly identify and involve beneficiaries, partners, stakeholders (participatory process) • Develop clear, logical, achievable objectives • Define realistic outputs and results • Identify and manage risks • Establish and use monitoring systems in adaptive management • Evaluate and capture lessons to increase knowledge and improve practice |
| Project Management cycle | |
| Initiation | Review project charter or project brief • Set initial project goal, objectives and scope • Define project scope and project objectives • Define project benefits • Situation or problem analysis • Stakeholder analysis • Prepare preliminary project timeline (start/stop date) • Determine preliminary project costs • Identify source of project funding - €$ and people • Decide whether to continue the project |
| Planning | Begin to prepare the project plan • Review goals and objectives • What strategies need to be considered • Identify the specific activities; Definition of each activity • Sequencing of activities; Estimate activity duration • Develop schedule • Develop risk management plan • Determine resource needs and resource costs • Allocate overall cost budget to individual resources • Finalize the project plan |
| Execution (Implementation | Begin the project • Perform the tasks and activities from the plan • Evaluate overall performance to ensure quality standards are being met • Develop individual and team skills to enhance project performance • Manage relationship with stakeholders. Distribute project information to stakeholders in a timely manner |
| Monitoring & Controlling / Evaluation | Coordinate change control across the entire project • Control changes to the project scope • Ensure that the project objective is being achieved; • Control changes to the project schedule; Ensure that the milestones are being reached on time • Control changes to the project budget; Ensure that the project stays within budget • Monitor specific project results to determine if they comply with relevant quality standards • Ensure that all the lines of communication are open with all relevant stakeholders • Monitor and control project risks |
| Closure | • Complete the project goal • Deliver the project objectives successfully • Satisfy the stakeholders • Closeout all contracts • Administrative closure – generate, gather, and disseminate all information to formalize project completion • End of project report; Document all lessons learned; Document best practices • Handover; Create file system for all project documentation |
| Responsibilities of a Project Manager | to direct, supervise and control the project from beginning to end. 1. define the project (manageable tasks, obtain appropriate resources, build a team) 2. set the final goal for the project and motivate his/her team to complete the project on time. 3. inform all stakeholders of progress on a regular basis. 4. assess & monitor risks to the project and mitigate them. 5. No project ever goes exactly as planned, so project managers must learn to adapt to and manage change. |
| project coordinator | involves asking employees to work on project tasks within a certain time frame. They’re responsible for building ‘the whole’ out of various building blocks of the isolated contributions. They need expertise. |
| project leader | manages a full-fledged team and is responsible for the process. The team is accountable for the quality of the project result(s). The most important task is to create synergy between the team members. They’re not expected to be an expert in the subject area. But some familiarity with the content is generally essential. |
| creating team | - Clear division of roles, duties and responsibilities - Recognizing your abilities and integrating them with your team mates - Open atmosphere and a culture with room for feedback - Ambitious and shared vision and objectives |
| Success factors of a well functioning team | - Clear objectives - Joint responsibility - Open communication - Mutual respect - Flexibility - Show initiative |
| Meetings | We don’t hold a meeting if it’s not necessary. If you decide to hold a meeting, ensure that it is well prepared: - They have to transfer information - Provide an overview of the current situation - (collectively) arrive at a decision or solution |
| Selective perception | we only observe what we want to hear. To avoid this ask the receiver what he has understood from your message. |
| Verbal | what is said, words. The advantage of written communication is that you can take your time to think about your words, and the receiver has more time to let the message sink in. Furthermore, it’s documented, so you can look at it again. |
| Non-verbal | body language, what you do. Learn to observe better, so you can see if the verbal message agrees with the non-verbal message. |
| Communication plan | 1. Identify the role of communication in the project 2. List the target groups, objectives, ‘messages’, and resources Carefully select your audience 3. Who’s going to do what? When? What is it going to cost? 4. Implement and evaluate the plan |
| project secretary | S/he has duties like: organizing team meetings, taking notes, and selecting and registering project documents. Their role is often underestimated, but they have considerable influence on the project because of the contacts they have. |
| Version management | 1) not everyone’s allowed to change a document 2) every time a new version of a document is created, it gets a unique code. Then carefully file the various versions. 3) A good project file is: accessible (easily found, logically arranged), complete and up-to-date |
| successful project | - Structure (project contract, methods, tools, procedures) - Leadership (imagination, self-awareness, commitment, inspiration) - Collaboration (team development, communication, culture, synergy) - Environment (client requirements, sponsors, force field) |
| A process | is made up of sequential activities that head in the desired direction. The focus is always on the following step, after which the direction is again determined. It consists of divergent (exploring) and convergent (selecting) actions. |
| The project plan (or: project contract) | The project plan documents the intended result, the enabling activities, and how the project will be managed from beginning to end. It’s signed by the sponsor and the project leader The contents: - Project definition - Work Breakdown Structure - Control plan (all agreements on time, money, quality, information, organization and communication) - Risk analysis |
| Project control | Progress reports should give an estimate of how far the project has progressed. • Time • Money • Quality |
| Success factor | a condition that increases the probability of achieving success |
| Success criteria | standards used by a person to decide if something is successful. |
| triple constraint | time, money, quality. |
| risk management | In the first stage of the project, determine the main risks and risk responses. The development of the approach should be done together with the most important people involved (sponsor, supplier, user representatives). |
| hierarchy into the goals | Project mission I Project goals I Objectives Benefits |
| 9 elements of the project definition | 1. Challenge 2. Impetus 3. Objective 4. Project result 5. Scope demarcation 6. Effects 7. Users 8. Constraints 9. Relationship to other projects |
| Impetus | The impetus is the event that makes the project acute, that has resulted in the project being set into motion now. It clarifies why the project must take place now and why it’s urgent. Why now? Why can’t it wait? |
| Constraints | List the factors that deserve particular attention because no concessions can be made to them. What resources are available? Is there a final deadline? What is the level of quality that we’re expected to deliver? |
| Stakeholder analysis | Document which parties have an influence. Involve them in the project. Document whether they have high/low interest/power. The key word in developing a strategy is always trust! |
| Force field analysis | How to avoid project failure? Use the force field analysis to identify: - How the stakeholders regard the project - The interests they have in the project - How they relate to each other; e.g., the nature and strength/weakness of these relationships |
| Project scope | boundaries of the project. It describes the project result, how the deliverables are put together, what we deliver, and what we are not going to carry out. The scope can be broken down and structured by the Work Breakdown Structure. |
| Deliverables | the specific output of the project. Make it clear what you’re going to deliver. Explicitly mention what you’re not going to deliver. |
| scope description | - Name, date - Business objective - Project deliverables, and description of the work |
| Scope creep | small changes of the scope, each of which taken separately does not appear to justify redefining the scope but added together contribute to a major scope change |
| Planning packages | a component about which we still have insufficient information to split it up further |
| Work packages | the lowest level at which it is possible to identify the activities to be carried out by the team, and to make realistic estimates |
| Stakeholder | - The influence/power they have on the project - Their interest. The consequences of the project for them The greater the influence and stake someone has, the more you need to involve that person |
| Work Breakdown Structure | determine how the project will be executed. It’s a way of creative structuring. It’s a delivery oriented breakdown of the work to be delivered. Everyone gets a task they like. Less popular activities are divided up by the team. When to stop on refining activities: 1) you can plan and budget them accurately, 2) they can be executed in a manageable period, 3) the activities listen can be carried out in a routine way |
| Steps to make WBS | 1. Have the team check whether the project definition gives rise to questions 2. Ask the project team members to write down all the activities and sub-activities, results and sub-results they can think of on post-its. Collect as many ideas as possible 3. Discuss each post-it and stick it on one of the sheets hanging on the wall. All the ideas are explained by the proposer, discussed and only then placed on the sheet. 4. Go back to the post-its and group together those ideas that belong together 5. Give the clusters a name (e.g. sub-results, project phases, professional areas etc) 6. Construct the WBS. Place the project result at the top, with the sub-results under it. Then layer the main activities, the activities, and the sub-activities 7. Cross check for completeness. It should be so detailed that you can use it to draw up a project schedule |
| Configuration management | It ensures that the documentation we’re going to deliver is in line with what is actually delivered. Everyone works with the same products (versions). |
| Steering groups | are interested parties who may carry as much weight as the sponsor and can exert pressure on the decision-making process. They might be a supplier or customer. |
| Sounding board group | broaden support for the project by providing an avenue for feedback. |
| A good sponsor | the 4 A’s - Authorized (formal power) at least one level higher in the organization than the line managers involved in the project - Available (accessibility) - Attached (commitment to the project) - Accomplished (experience, personal qualities) |
| the project schedule | Is the WBS ready? Make the following seven steps: 1. Determine the interdependency between the activities 2. Set milestones 3. Estimate how much time each activity will require 4. Conduct resource planning (e.g., team member availability 5. Determine the project duration and critical path 6. Compare the schedule with agreed upon time constraints 7. Monitor progress |
| A milestone | is an important observable event during a project and usually this is marked by the delivery of an important product. |
| Money | Initiation phase → Cost estimate Definition phase → Budget Execution phase → Cost monitoring Closing phase → Financial evaluation |
| cost control system | is the collection of control measures you take to control the costs. |
| risk analysis | 1. Identify What are vulnerable areas? And what are the specific risks in each vulnerable area? 2. Evaluate What is the probability of the risks? What are possible consequences? The interaction of these two factors point to which risks demand more attention. 3. Refine Explore the most relevant risks. Describe the risk event in a clear cause and effect relationship. 4. Plan What can the team do to prevent undesirable developments and/or to mitigate their impact on project successes. |
| Risk assessment | assessment of the probability and the possible impact of the risks |
| Risk aversion | the negative attitude of the management with respect to a risk |
| SWOT analysis | an analysis of the strong and weak points within an organization or project compared against the opportunities and threats from the surroundings. |
| Risk management strategies: | - Prevention: take measures to reduce the probability, to eliminate it, or to introduce an early warning signal - Adjustment: cope with the risks, e.g. by allocating extra time or budget - Damage limitation: the team implements measures that will keep the negative consequences to a minimum |
| Scope Management | |
| Time Management | |
| Define task list | - is the process of identifying the specific actions to be performed to produce the project deliverables. - Using the defined WBS, each work package will be broken down or decomposed into task list |
| Estimate activity duration | Number of work days required to complete a task • Influenced by: • number of people that can work on a task • use of machinery or manual labour • need to wait for other people or things to happen before you can complete the task • Weekends or non-work days are not included in the duration Can be done subjective, with expert opinion, comparitive, empirical |
| Estimate resources | What resources (persons, equipment, or materials)? What quantities of each resource will be used? |
| Concurrent activities | Describes two or more activities that can run at the same time Running activities concurrently can shorten over-all project duration |
| Dependent activities | Relationship between two or more activities The most common dependency is the Finish--Start. That indicates that one tasks cannot start until another task finishes |
| Types of Dependency | |
| Network Diagram | indicates the sequence and order in which each activity must be performed. |
| Critical Path | Longest continuous chain of activities through the network schedule that establishes the overall project duration. Failure of a critical path activity and late finish times will result in the overall project duration being extended. |
| Estimating start date | • Set task start-date at earliest possible date • Tasks that can run concurrently – set start dates to be the same (or close) for both tasks • Dependency exists betwen tasks – set start date of the sucessor to be on or after the end date of the predecessor task/s |
| Estimating end date | |
| Responsibility Assignment Matrix | uses the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and the organizational structure to link deliverables and/or activities to resources. deliverables are assigned a responsible party, who will review or add input and the appropriate approval authority is identified. |
| RAM – RACI | R esponsible - owner, the person who owns the work. Each deliverable/activity must have an owner. A pproval - the person who approves the deliverable or activity. There should only be one approver. C onsulted - this person delivers information required to do the work. I nformed - a person that needs to be informed of the progress of the work. |
| RAM – PARIS | P articipant - involved but not at a critical level A ccountable - must answer to management for the project task status R eview needed or required I nput needed or required S ign Off Required |
| Estimate activity costs | based on an estimate of the types and quantities of resources required to perform the activity. E.g. budget item, measurement unit, cost per unit, quantity of unit |
| Indirect Costs | Not directly linked to the project but they are required to help support the project |
| Direct Costs | Linked directly to the project. Identified easily from tasks in the timeline. Can be further broken down into two sub-categories |
| budget items | - Labour cost - Travel cost - Subcontracts & consultant cost - Equitment cost - Material cost - Facilities cost - Reserv |
| Budget item cost | Quantity required x Cost per unit |
| Parametric | determined by identifying the unit cost or duration and the number of units required for the project or activity. |
| Analogous | uses the actual costs of a previous, similar project for the basis for estimating the costs of the current project |
| Three-point technique | Simple Average: E_SA=(O+P+M)/3 |
| Top-down approach | the total project budget is known and the project needs to know the costs of each individual activity |
| Bottom up approach | requires estimating the individual activities and cost of each input and adding them up to get the project total. |
| Reserve or contingency cost | • Additional amount of project cost added to budget to compensate for perceived underestimates, project delays, or uncertain project situation •reflects uncertainty or risk • Add to an activity cost OR add to total budget cost OR to both • Fixed amount OR percentage of budget cost • ALWAYS document the contingency amount and the reason it was added in budget. |
| Risk Management | is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks. They need to be minimized, monitor, and control to maximize the realization of opportunities. |
| Risk Priorities | The priority of a risk helps to determine the amount of resources and time that should be dedicated to managing and monitoring the risk. • Very Low, Low, Medium, High, and Very High priority • timing of a risk |
| Probability of occurrence | The chance of a risk occurring is rated on a scale between >0 and 1 • When the probability of occurrence = 1; (100%) – The risk has occurred; it then becomes an issue and is managed as an issue • For most risks, estimating the precise probability of occurrence may be difficult |
| Consequence of risk occurrence | Risks are reviewed for the effect that they would have on the project’s objectives and other elements of the program • The level of impact, may be rated from very low (1) to very high (5), and is assessed against at least four categories: – Cost – Schedule (consider critical path) – Scope – Performance |
| Risk Response | is the process of developing options and determining actions to enhance opportunities and reduce threats to the project’s objectives Appropriate to the significance of the risk – Cost effective in meeting the challenge – Timely and realistic – Agreed to by all parties involved |
| Risk Escalation | Risks should be managed at the lowest practical level • But conditions may arise where a risk should be escalated to higher levels of management or beyond the program/project |
| Risk Mitigation | Taking early action to reduce the probability and/or impact of a risk occurring is often more effective that trying to repair the damage after the risk has occurred |
| Risk management model |
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