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Flashcards

Psychology - Research Methods

Millie Carless Psychology A Level - Miss Maiden English 199 cards

Psychology - Research Methods

Cards in this deck (199)

  1. 1Research MethodsResearch Methods
  2. 2What is the definition of an independent variable?Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured.
  3. 3What is the definition of a dependent variable?The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.
  4. 4What is the definition of an extraneous variable?Any variable other than the IV that may have an effect on the DV if it is not controlled. They are essentially nuisance variables which do not vary systematically with the IV.
    *might affect the results
  5. 5What is the definition of a confounding variable?Any variable other than the IV that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. They vary systematically with the IV.
    *definitely have affected the results
  6. 6What is the definition of a control variable?An experimental element which is constant and unchanged throughout the course of the investigation.
  7. 7What is the definition of demand characteristics?Anything from the researcher or the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation.
  8. 8What is the definition investigator effects?Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome. This may include anything from the design of the study to the selection and interaction with participants during the process.
  9. 9How do we operationalise variables including different levels of independent variable? What is operationalisation?Example: 20 Girls (aged 8-10) watch more TV (in hrs per month) than 20 boys (aged 8-10)
    *Cleary defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
  10. 10Describe an experimental method.Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the fact on the dependent variable. Experiment may be laboratory, quasi, natural or field.
  11. 11What is a laboratory experiment?An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV. This is whilst maintaining the effects on the DV.
  12. 12What are 2 STRENGTHS of laboratory experiments?1. High control over extraneous variables.
    Explanation: The researcher can ensure that any effect on the DV is likely to be manipulation of the IV. Therefore, cause and effect can be seen.
    2.Replication is more possible because of the high level of control.
    Explanation: The researcher can ensure new extraneous variables are not introduced when repeating an experiment. Replication is important to check if a study is valid.
  13. 13What are 2 WEAKNESSES of laboratory experiments?1. May lack generalisability.
    Explanation: The lab environment isn’t like everyday life. The unfamiliar context may result in participants in an unusual way. This means there behaviour cannot be generalised (Low external validity.)
    2. Participants are aware they are being tested in a laboratory experiment.
    Explanation: This may contribute to unnatural behaviour and demand characteristics are evident.
  14. 14What is a quasi experiment?A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key components. The IV has not been determined by anyone – the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment.
  15. 15What are 2 STRENGTHS of quasi experiments?1. High control over extraneous variables.
    Explanation: The researcher can ensure that any effect on the DV is likely to be manipulation of the IV. Therefore, cause and effect can be seen
    2. Replication is more possible because of the high level of control.
    Explanation: The researcher can ensure new extraneous variables are not introduced when repeating an experiment. Replication is important to check if a study is valid.
  16. 16What are 2 WEAKNESSES of quasi experiments?1. They cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions.
    Explanation: This means there may be confounding variables.
    2. There is a problem of demand characteristics as participants are more likely to try and please the researcher.
  17. 17What is a field experiment?An experiment which takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV.
  18. 18What are 2 STRENGTHS of a field experiment?1. Higher mundane realism than lab experiments as the environment is more natural.
    Explanation: This may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic.
    2. Participants are therefore may be unaware they are being studied.
    Explanation: This means a high external validity.
  19. 19What are 2 WEAKNESSES of a field experiment?1. As there is increased realism, this means a loss of control of extraneous variables.
    Explanation: This means that cause and effect between the IV and DV is much more different to establish and precise replication is often not possible.
    2. Participants can be unaware they are being studied which means they cannot consent to being studied.
    Explanation: This creates ethical issues as it may be seen as an invasion of privacy.
  20. 20What is a natural experiment?An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effects on the DV.
  21. 21What are 2 STRENGTHS of a natural experiment?1. Provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons.
    2. Involve the study of real-life issues and problems as they happen, such as the effects of a natural disaster on stress levels.
    Explanation: This means it has a high external validity.
  22. 22What are 2 WEAKNESSES of a natural experiment?1. Naturally occurring events happen rarely which means small opportunities for research.
    Explanation: This will limit the scope in which the study can be generalised to similar situations.
    2. Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (only applies for independent groups design.)
    Explanation: This means the researcher may be less sure whether the IV affected the DV.
  23. 23What is the definition of ecological validity?How well you can generalise a different study to different settings or situations.
    *2/3 for it to have ecological validity
    1. Participants awareness of experimenter (if yes, this is bad)
    2. Mundane realism of the task
    3. Mundane realism of the environment
  24. 24What is temporal validity?A type of external validity that refers to the validity of findings in relation to the progression of time. It is high when research findings successfully apply across time.
  25. 25How to use the different types of validity to evaluate the designs of studies and to suggest how to improve the validity of studies***
  26. 26How can validity be assessed?1. Face Validity: Whether a test, scale or measure appears to measure what it is supposed to measure 'on the face of it.' This is done by eyeballing the measuring instrument or passing it to an expert to check.
    2: Concurrent Validity: Of a particular test or scale is demonstrated when the results obtained are very close to or match those obtained by a other recognised test measuring the same concept.
    * A correlation between the scores participants receive on both tests is carried out; if correlation is +.8 or above it has high concurrent validity.
  27. 27What is the definition of reliability?Reliability is a measure of consistency. It refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used.
  28. 28How can reliability be ensured for questionnaires?If test-retest reliability is said to be low, some of the items may need to be 'deselected' (removed) or rewritten.
    *E.g.an open question that is ambiguous may need to be replaced with closed, fixed question where the options are less ambiguous.
  29. 29How can reliability be ensured for interviews? (2)1. Use the same interviewer each time
    2. Interviewers must be properly trained so that one interviewer isn't asking questions that are too leading or ambiguous. This can be avoided using structured interviews. Unstructured interviews are likely to be less reliable.
  30. 30How can reliability be ensured for experiments?It is often described as reliable as the researcher can control may aspects of the procedure (e.g. instructions, procedures). This allows more precise application.
  31. 31How can reliability be ensured for observations? (2)1. Make sure that behavioural categories are properly operationalised and that they are measurable and self evident.
    2. Categories should not overlap and all behaviours should be covered on the checklist.
  32. 32Describe the BPS' Code of Ethics and Control.A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The four major principles are: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
  33. 33What is informed consent?Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the study. They can then make an informed decision about whether to participate or not.
  34. 34What is deception?Where a participant is not told the true aims of the study and cannot truly give informed consent. Occasionally, it may involve provision of false information.
  35. 35What is right to withdraw?Participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a research study if they are uncomfortable.
  36. 36What is protection from physical and psychological harm?Participants should be protected from physical and psychological harm. This includes: feeling embarrassed, inadequate or being placed under undue stress or pressure. They should be reminded they have the ‘right to withdraw’ at any point.
  37. 37What is confidentiality?A participants right to have personal information protected.
  38. 38What is privacy?Not invading personal aspects of a participants life, such as expecting them to share their inner feelings or beliefs.
  39. 39How should you deal with informed consent?Informed Consent:
    Presumptive Consent - rather than getting consent from the participant themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If the group of people agree, consent of the original participants is 'presumed.'
    Prior general consent - participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.
    Retrospective consent - at the end of the study (Debrief) participants are asked for their consent having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or may have been subject to deception.
  40. 40How should you deal with deception?Debriefing where participants should be told:
    1. True aims of the investigation
    2. Any details that were not given during the study, such as existence of other groups or experimental conditions
    3. What data will be used for
    4. Given right to withhold their data
  41. 41What is needed in a consent form?1. Title of the study
    2. Introduction to the purpose of the study; brief details of the background too.
    3. Answers to FAQS as a continuous prose:
    a) Have to take part?
    b) What will happen to me?
    c) How long will it take?
    d) Where ?
    e) Are there any risks?
    f) Any advantages?
    g) Who will see results? Confidential?
    4. Name and contact details of researcher
    5. Thank you to participant
  42. 42What is needed in a consent form 2?(Tick boxes layout)
    1. Confirmation that participant has
    a) Read and understood information
    b) Had opportunity to ask questions
    c) Understand participation is voluntary and can withdraw
    d) Consents to specific aspects of study (videoed)
    2. Signature and date
  43. 43What is needed in a debrief form?(Written so that it can be read out to the participant)
    - True aim of study
    - If independent groups design, outline of both conditions of the study otherwise outline of the study
    - Ask participants if they have any questions and if so who they can address these to
    - Remind them of ethical issues
    - Offer someone to talk to if distressed
    - Thank participants for taking part
  44. 44What is the definition of an aim?A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.
  45. 45What is the definition of hypothesis?A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study.
  46. 46What is the definition of a directional hypothesis?States the direction of the difference or relationship.
  47. 47What is the definition of a non-directional hypothesis?A form of hypothesis that states a difference, correlation or association between two variables but does not specify the direction of the relationship.
  48. 48What is the difference between the aim and the hypothesis?The aim identifies the purpose of the investigation and what the researcher is trying to find out whereas a hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what researchers predict the outcome of the study will be.
  49. 49How should the aim be written?*To investigate whether A affects B
    *General statement to describe the purpose
  50. 50How should a directional hypothesis be written? (experiment)*States direction or relationship between 2 conditions
    *If study is looking for relationship: 'There is a positive/negative correlation between'
    NOTE: In the case of a statistical test, as there is one outcome it is a one tailed test.
  51. 51How should a non-directional hypothesis be written? (experiment)*Predicts that there will be a difference between 2 conditions
    *If the study is looking for a relationship: 'There is a correlation between'
    NOTE: In the case of a statistical test, as there is more then one outcome in mind, it is a two tailed test.
  52. 52How should a null hypothesis be written?*No difference or association between variables
    *There is no difference in...
  53. 53When should you use a directional hypothesis?When there is previous research so you know what to expect.
    **must say what previous research
  54. 54When should you use a non-directional hypothesis?When there is no previous research on you topic or when there is previous research but the studies have conflicting results.
  55. 55What is an independent groups design?Where participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
  56. 56What are 2 Strengths of independent groups design?1. Order effects are not a problem whereas they are for repeated measures.
    2. Participants are less likely to guess the aim.
  57. 57What are 2 Weaknesses of independent groups design?1. Participants who occupy the different groups are not the same.
    * If a researcher finds a mean difference between the groups on the DV, this may be because of participant variables rather then the effects of the IV. Random allocation is used.
    2. Less economical then repeated measures as each participant contributes a single result only.
    *Twice as many participants would be needed to produce equivalent data to a repeated measures design.
  58. 58What is a repeated measures design?When all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
  59. 59What are 2 Strengths of a repeated measures design?1. Participant variables are controlled.
    2. Fewer participants are needed.
  60. 60What are 2 Weaknesses of a repeated measures design?1. Each participant has to do at least two tasks and the order of these tasks may be significant e.g. order effects.
    *Counterbalancing deals with this.
    2. It is more likely participants will work out the aim of the study when they experience all conditions of the experiment.
    *Demand characteristics tend to be more of a problem here then independent measures.
  61. 61What is a matched pairs design?Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to the Condition A and the other to Condition B.
  62. 62What are 2 Strengths of a matched pairs design?1. Participants take part in a single condition so order effects are less of a problem.
    2. Participants only take part in a single condition so demand characteristics are less of a problem.
  63. 63What are 2 Weaknesses of a matched pairs design?1. Matching may be time consuming and expensive particularly if pre-test is required, so this is less economical then other designs.
    2. There is some attempt remove participant variables in this design but participants can never be matched exactly.
    *Affects the DV.
  64. 64What is the difference between a population and a sample?A population is the total number of participants which a sample may be drawn from as a smaller representation.
  65. 65What is an opportunity sample?A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies on inviting people to take part.
  66. 66What are 2 Strengths of an opportunity sample?1. Opportunity sampling is convenient. It saves the researcher a good deal of time and effort and is less costly in terms of time and money then random sampling.
    2. ***no other strengths.
  67. 67What are 2 Weaknesses of opportunity sample?1. The sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area e.g. one street in one town.
    Explanation: This means that findings cannot be generalised to the target population.
    2. The researcher has complete control over the selection of participants and may avoid people they don’t like the look of.
    Explanation: This contributes to researcher bias.
  68. 68What is a systematic sample?A method of obtaining a sample by selecting every 5th, 7th, 10th or whatever person. This can be random if the first person selected is random; then you select every 5th,7th and 10th.
  69. 69What are 2 Strengths of a systematic sample?1. Avoids researcher bias.
    Explanation: Once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence over who is selected.
    2. Usually fairly representative.
    Explanation: it would be possible but quite unlucky to get a stratified sample of all men.
  70. 70What are 2 Weaknesses of a systematic sample?1. Selected participants may refuse to take part (end up with something more like a volunteer sample.)
    2.***Only one weakness
  71. 71What is a random sample?A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected.
  72. 72What are 2 Strengths of a random sample?1. Avoids researcher bias.
    Explanation: Researcher has no influence over who is selected and this prevents them who choosing people who may support their hypothesis.
    2. ***Only one strength
  73. 73What are 2 Weaknesses of a random sample?1. Random sampling is difficult and time consuming to to conduct.
    Explanation: A complete list of the target population might be difficult to obtain; may end up with a sample which is still unrepresentative.
    2. Selected participants may refuse to take part (end up with something more like a volunteer sample.)
  74. 74What is a stratified sample?A sampling technique in which groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the population so that a representative sample can be collected. The aim is to identify sections of the population that need to be represented in the study. Individuals from the sample are then selected using a random technique; if the sample is not randomly selected from the stratum, it is then a quota sample.
  75. 75What are 2 Strengths of a stratified sample?1. Avoids researcher bias.
    Explanation: The target population is divided into sub-divided into strata and then, the participants that make up the numbers are randomly selected and beyond the influence of the researcher. It produces a representative sample; generalisation.
    2.***Only one strength.
  76. 76What are 2 Weaknesses of a stratified sample?1. Stratification is not perfect.
    Explanation: Identified strata cannot effect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of the target population is not possible.
    2. Selected participants may refuse to take part (end up with something more like a volunteer sample.)
  77. 77What is a volunteer sample?A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies on inviting people to take part.
  78. 78What are 2 Strengths of a volunteer sample?1. Volunteer sampling is easy; it requires a small inout from the researcher and so it is less time consuming then other types of sampling.
    2. ***Only one strength.
  79. 79What are 2 Weaknesses of a volunteer sample?1. Volunteer bias is a problem.
    Explanation: Asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person; one who is helpful, keen and curious. This may affect generalisation.
    2. ***Only one weakness.
  80. 80What are three ways to randomly allocate participants?1. Lottery method
    2. Random number tables
    3. Random number generators
  81. 81How is the lottery method carried out?1. Each of the N population members is assigned a unique number.
    2. The numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed.
    3. Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers.
    4. Population members having the selected numbers are included in the sample.
  82. 82How are random number tables carried out?1. Population = 185 students & each student has been assigned a number from 1 to 185.
    2. Wish to sample 5 students (although we would normally sample more).
    3. Population of 185, 185 is a three digit number, we need to use the first three digits of the numbers listed on the chart.
    4. Close our eyes and randomly point to a spot on the chart. For this example, 20631 has been selected in the first column.
    Interpret that number as 206 (first three digits).
    5. Since we don’t have a member of our population with that number, we go down to the next number 899 (89990).
    6. Once again we don’t have someone with that number, so we continue at the top of the next column. As we work down the column, we find that the first number to match our population is 100 (actually 10005 on the chart).
    7. Student number 100 would be in our sample. Continuing down the chart, we see that the other four subjects in our sample would be students 049, 082, 153, and 164.
    Researchers use different techniques with these tables.    How are random number tables carried out?
  83. 83How are random number generators carried out?With the number of participants, set the generator from 1-50 (if you have 50 participants) and press the button.
  84. 84What is counterbalancing?An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.
  85. 85How does counterbalancing overcome order effects?In a repeated measures design participants are used in both conditions. This means order effects are present as participants may become bored of the tasks; by using counterbalancing the tasks are more interesting and participants are less likely to become bored.
  86. 86What is standardisation and why is it important?Standardisation is using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
    It is important because it means there are extraneous variables due to this.
  87. 87How to write standardised instructionsGeneral Order:
    *Sample participants
    *Consent Form
    *Standardised instructions
    *Randomise into conditions
    *Do experiment
    *Do test
    *Debrief
  88. 88What is the definition of a pilot study?A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted.
  89. 89What are the aims of piloting?1. Check procedures, materials, measuring scales ect work
    2. Allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary
  90. 90What is the definition of correlational?A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.
    *NOT FOR TEST
  91. 91What is the definition of co-variables?The variables investigated within a correlation, for example height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause and effect relationship.
    *NOT FOR TEST
  92. 92What is the definition of positive correlations?As one co variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise are positively correlated.
    *NOT FOR TEST
  93. 93What is the definition of negative correlations?As one co-variable increases, the other decreases. For example, the following two co-variables: the number of people in a room and amount of personal space are negatively correlated.
    *NOT FOR TEST
  94. 94What is the definition of zero correlations?When there is no relationship between co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru.
    *NOT FOR TEST
  95. 95How to analyse the relationship between co-variables (using correlation co-efficients, scattergrams and significance tables)***
    *NOT FOR TEST
  96. 96What is the difference between correlations and experiments?*In an experiment, the iV is controlled or manipulated by the researcher so that the effect on the DV can be measured. Due to this deliberate change in one variable, we can infer the IV caused any observed changes in the DV.
    *In a correlation, there is no such manipulation of one variable and this means we cannot establish the cause and effect between one co-variable and another.
    *NOT FOR TEST
  97. 97An evaluation of correlational analysesStrength 1: Correlations are used as a stating point to assess possible patterns between variables before committing to an experimental study.
    Strength 2: Correlations are relatively quick and economical to carry out; no need for controlled environment and no need to manipulate variables. Data collected by others can be used which means correlations are less time consuming then experiments.
    Weakness 1:Due to lack the lack of experimental manipulation and control within a correlation, studies can only tell us how variables are related but not why. They cannot demonstrate causes and effect between variables meaning, we do not know which co-variable is causing the other to change.
    Weakness 2: Another untested variable may be causing the relationship between the two co-variables we are interested in - an intervening variable which is a third variable problem. Due to this, correlations can be misused or misinterpreted.
  98. 98What is nominal data?Data represented in the form of categories. Nominal data is discrete. This means that one item can only appear in one of the categories.
  99. 99What is ordinal data?Data that is ordered in some way. It does not have equal intervals between each unit. It is based on subjective opinion.
  100. 100What is interval data?Data that is based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size. This is anything that is measured on a mathematical scale.
  101. 101What are descriptive statistics?The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.
  102. 102What are measures of central tendency?The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of scores.
  103. 103What is the mean?Adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values there are.
  104. 104What is the median?The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest.
  105. 105What is the mode?The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.
  106. 106What is the range?Subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding 1 as a mathematical correction.
  107. 107What is standard deviation?A sophisticated measure of dispersion in a set of scores. It tells us how much the scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores. This gives the variance. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
  108. 108When should you use the: Mean Median Mode Range Standard deviationStandard Deviation
    *Small score > results are close to mean > consistent
    *High score > results far away from mean > inconsistent    When should you use the: Mean Median Mode Range Standard deviation
  109. 109Evaluate the mean.Strength: Most sensitive measure of central tendency as it takes into account the exact distance between all of the values of data.
    Weakness: The sensitivity of this measure of central tendency can be distorted by one or few extreme values and end up being a misrepresentative of the data as a whole.
  110. 110Evaluate the median.Strength: This measure of central tendency is not affected by extreme scores so can be useful under such circumstances.
    Weakness: This is not as sensitive a measure of central tendency because the exact values are not reflected in the middle value.
  111. 111Evaluate the mode.Strength: This is the only measure of central tendency that can be used when there is nominal data.
    Weakness: This measure of central tendency is easiest to calculate but is a very crude measure. It can be very different from the median and mean meaning it is not a good representation of the data as a whole.
  112. 112Evaluate the range.Strength: This measure of dispersion is easy to calculate.
    Weakness: This measure of dispersion is affected by extreme values because it only takes into account extreme values. Therefore, it is a misrepresentation of the data as a whole.
  113. 113Evaluate standard deviation.Strength: This is a precise measure of dispersion because it takes all of the exact values into account, and so is more likely to be representative of the data as a whole.
    Weakness: This measure of dispersion may be distorted by a single extreme value as all of the data are taken into account. Therefore, it may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole.
  114. 114How to present and display quantitative data: Tables Bar Charts Histograms Line Graphs Scattergrams*Bar Charts have gaps
    *Histograms have no gaps
  115. 115Describe and draw what a normal distribution looks like.1. The mean, median and mode are all in the exact mid-point
    2. The distribution is symmetrical around the mid-point
    3. The dispersion of scores of measurements either side of the mid-point is consistent and can be expressed in standard deviations
    4. Bell shaped curve    Describe and draw what a normal distribution looks like.
  116. 116Describe and draw what a positively skewed distribution looks like.1. Mode
    2. Median
    3. Mean
    *most of the scores are bunched towards the left    Describe and draw what a positively skewed distribution looks like.
  117. 117Describe and draw what a negatively skewed distribution looks like.1. Mean
    2. Median
    3. Mode
    *most of the scores are bunched towards the right.    Describe and draw what a negatively skewed distribution looks like.
  118. 118How to calculate mean, median, mode, rangeMean = add up the values in the data set and then divide by the number of values that you added.
    Median = Order all the numbers and find the central value
    Mode = most common number
    Range = Biggest number - Smallest number
  119. 119What are inferential tests?Several different tests to test that the results are significant. These tests are dependent on the type of data and experimental design.
    *Spearman's rho, Pearson's r, Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney, related t-test, Chi-squared test, the sign test
  120. 120What is probability?A numerical measure of the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur.
  121. 121What is significance?A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong to enable a researcher to reject the null hypothesis under test and accept the research hypothesis.
  122. 122What is a calculated value?The value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set.
  123. 123What is a critical value?The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the null hypothesis to be rejected.
  124. 124What is a one-tailed test?Form of test used with a directional hypothesis.
  125. 125What is a two-tailed test?Form a test used with a non-directional hypothesis.
  126. 126What is a table of critical values?A table that contains numbers used to judge significance (whether the null hypothesis can be rejected.) The observed value of the test statistic is compared to the number in the table (called the critical value) to see if the observed value is significant.
  127. 127What are type 1 errors?This is when the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesises accepted when the null hypothesis is 'true' i.e. saying a result is significant when it is due to chance. This is often called the error of optimists. The often occurs when the significance level is too lenient (p<_0.10). The likelihood of making a type 1 error is always the same as the significance level.
  128. 128What are type 2 errors?This is then the null hypothesis is accepted but should have been rejected because the alternative hypothesis is 'true.' This often occurs when the significance is too stringent (p<_0.01) (drugs)
  129. 129What three things determine the statistical test you should choose?1. Is the researcher looking for difference or correlation?
    2. The experimental design used
    3. Level of measurement; nominal, ordinal or interval
  130. 130How should you choose the correct statistical test? *Can Simon Cowell Make Winner Sings Under Real Pressure*Bottom row are all parametric testsHow should you choose the correct statistical test? *Can Simon Cowell Make Winner Sings Under Real Pressure
  131. 131How to calculate the sign test and interpret the results to draw a conclusion***
  132. 132How to interpret critical values tables of all statistical tests to interpret***
  133. 133What is the definition of peer review?A peer review is the process by which psychological research papers are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists who work in a similar field. This is done before publication so that the research can be considered in terms of its validity, significance and originality and so that all research that is published is of a high quality.
  134. 134Describe the peer review process1. There are a number of reviewers for each assessment. They are sent work by a journal editor.
    2. Their task is to report on the quality of the research.
    3. There are four things the reviewer can recommend: research published how it is, research needs revising, rejection but suggesting revisions and resubmission or outright rejection.
    4. Single-blind review: names of reviewers not revealed to researchers.
    5. Double-blind review: reviewers and researchers both anonymous.
    6. Open review: reviewers and researchers know each other.
  135. 135Why is peer reviewing an important part of the scientific process?1. A way to check validity of research, credibility of research an assess the quality and appropriateness of the way that the study was designed.
    2. Peers can judge how important research is in wire context of psychology.
    3. Peers can recommend whether the work can be published as it is, whether it needs revising or should be rejected.
  136. 136What are the criticisms of the peer review process?1. Single-blind review: reviewers may delay their reviews so that they can publish similar research first and/or hide behind their anonymity to be undeservedly harsh.
    2. Double-blind review: researcher may be identifiable by they're handwriting style.
    3. Open review: deserved criticism may be watered down to kindness or fear of retribution of famous or more powerful researchers.
  137. 137What should be included within the abstract section a psychological report?Purpose: A short summary of the whole report that gives sufficient detail to allow the reader to determine whether the whole report is worth reading
    Includes: A 200 word summary of the aims, hypothesis, method, results, conclusions and implications
  138. 138What should be included within the introduction section a psychological report?Purpose: A literature review of the general area of investigation detailing the relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the study.
    Includes: It should follow a logical progression- beginning broadly and gradually becoming more specific: eventually aims and hypotheses should be presented
  139. 139What should be included within the method section a psychological report?Purpose: Split into many sub-sections; sufficient detail in order to allow other researchers to replicate the study if necessary.
    Includes:Design: Design is clearly stated e.g. independent groups, naturalistic observation ect and reasoning for choice.
    Sample: Information related to the people in the study - how many, biographical/demographic information (not compromising anonymity), sampling method and target population.
    Apparatus/Materials: Any assessment instruments used and other relevant materials.
    Procedure: A ‘recipe style’ list of everything that happened in the investigation from beginning to end. Includes verbatim record of everything that was said to participants: briefing, standardised instructions and debriefing.
    Ethics: Explanation of how these were addressed within the study.
  140. 140What should be included within the results section a psychological report?Purpose:Results should summarise the key findings from the investigation.
    Includes: Descriptive statistics such as: graphs, tables and charts, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion. Inferential statistics: reference to choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, the level of significance and the final outcome.
    Raw data that was collected and any calculations in the post script.
    If researcher has used qualitative methods, results/findings likely to involve analysis of themes and/or categories.
  141. 141What should be included within the discussion section a psychological report?Purpose: Researcher will summarise results/findings in verbal, rather then statistical form.
    Includes: Results/findings should be discussed in the context of the evidence presented in the introduction and other relevant research. Researcher should be mindful of limitations of present investigation and discuss these; includes reference to aspects of the method, or the sample and suggestions of how limitations can be addressed in the future. Wider implications of research considered. May include real-world applications of what has been discovered and what contribution the investigation has made.
  142. 142What should be included within the referencing section a psychological report?Purpose: Full details of any source material that the researcher drew upon or cited in the report.
    Includes: May include; Journal articles, books, websites etc.
  143. 143How should you deal with protection from harm?During debrief participants should be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal.
    Provide counselling.
  144. 144How should you deal with privacy?Do not observe anyone without consent or use presumptive consent.
  145. 145How should you deal with confidentiality?Personal details protected and not shared.
    Record no personal details: initials, numbers or false names.
  146. 146A description of self-report techniquesAny method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences relate to a given topic.
  147. 147A description of questionnairesA set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.
  148. 148A description of structured interviewsAny interview where the questions are decided in advance, basically a questionnaire delivered by a person.
  149. 149A description of unstructured interviewsThe interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions.
  150. 150Evaluation of questionnairesStrength 1: Cost effective. Gather large amounts of data quickly because they can be distributed to large amounts of people.
    Strength 2: Can be completed without researcher being present; reduces effort.
    Weakness 1: Responses given may not be truthful. Demand characteristics/ social desirability bias.
    Weakness 2: Produce response bias. Respondents want to complete questionnaire quickly and fail to read questions.
  151. 151Evaluation of Structured InterviewsStrength 1: Straightforward to replicate due to standardised format. Reduces differences between interviewers
    Weakness: Not possible for interviewers to deviate from topic or elaborate on points which is frustrating.
  152. 152Evaluation of unstructured interviewsStrength 1: Much more flexibility. Interviewer can follow up points as they arise and is much more likely to gain insight.
    Weakness 1: Analysis is not straightforward and interviewer may have to sift through irrelevant information; drawing firm conclusions may be hard.
  153. 153How to construct a questionnaire1. Should contain good questions
    2. They should contain filler questions - irrelevant questions to distract participants from the aim of the study: reduce demand C
    3. Think carefully about the sequence of questions - start with eat ones and save more anxious/defensive ones for when participant has relaxed
    4. Think carefully about sampling technique: questionnaires = stratified sampling
    5. Test questionnaire in pilot study before main study; questions later can be refined in response to difficulties
  154. 154What is an open question?Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish e.g. why did you take up smoking?
  155. 155What is a closed question?Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question e.g. do you smoke? yes/no
  156. 156Strengths of open questions1. Rich qualitative data is obtained as open questions allow the respondent to elaborate on their answer. This means the research can find out why a person holds a certain attitude.
    2. Reveals how the respondents think about the question.
  157. 157Weaknesses of Closed questions1. They lack detail. Because the responses are fixed there is less scope for respondents to supply answers which reflect their true feelings on a topic.
    2. Respondents may select answers most similar to true response, even though it is different.
  158. 158Strengths of Closed questions1. Data can be quickly obtained as closed questions are easy to answer (usually just ticking a box). This means a large sample size can be obtained which should be representative of the population, which a researcher can then generalize from.
    2. Questions are standardised. All respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order. Therefore, questionnaire can be replicated easily to check for reliability and, a second researcher can use the questionnaire to check that the results are consistent.
  159. 159Weaknesses of Open questions1. Time consuming to collect the data. It takes longer for the respondent to complete open questions. This is a problem as a smaller sample size may be obtained.
    2. Time consuming to analyze the data. It takes longer for the researcher to analyze qualitative data as they have to read the answers and try to put them into categories by coding, which is often subjective and difficult.
  160. 160Writing good questions 11. Analysis - questions need to be written so that they are easy to analyse: may force people to select answers that don't represent their real thoughts or behaviour, but because everyone could potentially give a different answer, they are more difficult to analyse.
  161. 161Writing good questions 22. Bias - questions should be free of bias. This is because any bias in a question could lead the respondent to be more likely to give a particular answer. Greatest problem is social desirability bias as participants may give answers to make themselves look more attractive, nicer, more generous etc. rather than being truthful.
  162. 162Writing good questions 33. Clarity - questions should be clear and unambiguous i.e. should be written in a way respondent understands what is being asked (don't overuse jargon.) Use of double negatives reduces clarity as do double barrelled questions.
  163. 163How to design an interview -recording the interview1. Interviewer may take notes throughout interview to document answers
    2. However, point above may interfere with their listening skills and make participant feel a sense of evaluation because interviewer may not write everything down and respondent feels what they wrote is not valuable.
    3. This could lead to social desirability bias or demand C.
    4. Interviews may be audio recorded or video recorded as well.
  164. 164How to design an interview -the effect of the interviewer1. One strength of conducting an interview compared to questionnaire is the presence of an interviewer who is interested in respondent's answers.
    2. This increases the amount of information provided.
    3. Therefore interviewers need to be aware of behaviours that demonstrate their interest.
  165. 165Behaviours that demonstrate an interviewer's interest1. Non-verbal communication - sitting with arms crossed and frowning communicate disapproval and disinterest. Head nodding and leaning forward encourage respondent to speak.
    2. Listening skills - interviewer needs to know when and how to speak e.g. should not interrupt too often and when they do speak they should have a range of encouraging comments to show they are listening.
  166. 166How to design an interview -questioning skills required for different types of interviewUnstructured interview: special skills to be learned about what kind of follow up questions should be asked.
    1. Important to be aware of questions already asked and avoid repeating them.
    2. Useful to avoid probing too much or to ask why too often.
    3. Better to ask more focused questions - both for interviewee and analysis of questions later.
  167. 167What is a naturalistic observation?Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
  168. 168Evaluation of naturalisticStrength: High external validity which means they can be generalised to everyday life. Behaviour is studied in the normal environment it would normally occur.
  169. 169Evaluation of naturalisticWeakness 1: Lack of control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult.
    Weakness 2: Many uncontrolled extraneous variables make it more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour.
  170. 170What is a controlled observation?Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment i.e. one where some variables are managed.
  171. 171Evaluation of controlledStrength: Extraneous variables are less of a factor so replication of the observation becomes easier.
  172. 172Evaluation of controlledWeakness: May produce findings that cannot be readily applied to real-life settings.
  173. 173What is an overt observation?Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
  174. 174Evaluation of overtStrength: Participants do not know they are being watched which removes the problem of participant reactivity and ensures behaviour observed will be natural. Increases validity of data gathered.
  175. 175Evaluation of overtWeakness: Ethics of these studies may be questioned as people, even in public, may not want to have their behaviours noted down.
    *Overt observations are more ethically acceptable but the knowledge participants have that they are being observed may act as a significant influence on their behaviour.
  176. 176What is a covert observation?Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
  177. 177Evaluation of covert*Look at overt
  178. 178Evaluation of covert*Look at overt
  179. 179What are participant observations?The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
  180. 180Evaluation of participantStrength: The researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied. This may increase the validity of the findings.
  181. 181Evaluation of participantWeakness: However, the researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity. Some researchers refer to this as 'going naive' when the line between being a researcher and being a participant becomes blurred.
  182. 182What are non-participant observations?The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
  183. 183Evaluation of non-participnatStrength: Allow the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from their participant so there is less danger of them 'going native.'
  184. 184Evaluation of non-particpnatWeakness: May lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying.
  185. 185How to design observational studies -behavioural categoriesDivide a behaviour (e.g. aggression) into smaller observable behaviours (e.g. hitting, kicking)
    *Subjective
    *Can't overlap
  186. 186How to design observational studies -sampling proceduresContinous sampling.
    Time sampling.
    Event sampling.
  187. 187How to design observational studies -how to record the dataTALLY.
  188. 188What is time sampling?Researcher records their participants behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g. every 60 seconds.
  189. 189What is event sampling?A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
  190. 190What is continous sampling?Records all the activity that occurs while the participants are being watched.
  191. 191Meta-analysesRefers to the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view. This may involve a qualitative review of conclusions and/or a quantitative analysis of the results producing an effect size.
  192. 192What is quantitative data?Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.
  193. 193What is qualitative data?Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although qualitative data may be converted to numbers for the purposes of analysis.)
  194. 194What is primary data?Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.
  195. 195What is secondary data?Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists, or government statistics.
  196. 196The difference between qualitative and quantitative dataQualitative = words
    Quantitative = numbers
  197. 197The difference between primary and secondary dataPrimary = first-hand
    Secondary = from other sources/people
  198. 198Techniques used to collect qualitative dataObservation
    Interview
    Questionnaires
    Scales
  199. 199Techniques used to collect quantitative dataIndividual interviews
    Focus groups
    Observation
    Action Research

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Psychology A Level - Miss Maiden Flashcards on Psychology - Research Methods, created by Millie Carless on 28/11/2017.
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