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Description
Flashcards by Malachy Moran-Tun, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Malachy Moran-Tun
about 3 years ago
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| Question | Answer |
| What are Hormones? | > Chemical messengers released directly in the blood > Carried in the blood to target organs > Control things in cells that need constant adjustment > Released by endocrine glands (making up the endocrine system) |
| What is a Target Organ? | An organ specifically targeted by a particular hormone. The hormone affects what the target organ is doing |
| What is the Pituitary Gland? | > Located at the base of brain > Releases many hormones > ACTH, FSH, LH and growth hormone > These hormones can also act on other glands, directing THEM to release hormones |
| What is the Thyroid? | > Located in the neck > Produces several important hormones - mainly thyroxine |
| What is the Adrenal Gland? | > Located above both kidneys > Released several hormones - mainly adrenaline |
| What is the Pancreas? | > Located behind stomach > Contains cells that produce insulin and glucagon |
| What are the Testes? | > Male Sex > Located in testicles > Releases the sex hormone testosterone |
| What are the Ovaries? | > Female Sex > Located below abdomen > Produces the sex hormones œstrogen and progesterone |
| What is the Purpose of the Growth Hormone? | > Stimulate cell division is muscles and bones > Also stimulates digestion of calcium ions to absorb them |
| What are the Main Differences between Nerve Responses and Hormonal Responses? | Nerves: fast, short time, precise area Hormones: slow, long time, general area |
| What is Negative Feedback? | A control mechanism that reacts to a change in a condition by bringing the condition back to normal |
| What is the purpose of Thyroxine? | Regulates metabolic rate (speed at which chemical reactions in the body occurs) |
| What are (some of) the Target Organs of Thyroxine? | > Cardiac Muscles in heart - to contract rapidly and strongly (increasing BPM) > In Cells - increase in the rate which Proteins and Carbohydrates are broken down > Organs in digestion, brain development, bone health (basically a lot etc.) |
| What is the Negative Feedback of Thyroxine if there is a High Concentration? | > Inhibits the release of thyrotropin releasing hormone > Reduction of TRH reduces the production of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) > Thyroxine is not released |
| What is the Negative Feedback of Thyroxine if there is a Low Concentration? | > Stimulates the release of thyrotropin releasing hormone > TRH increases the production of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) > Thyroxine is released |
| What is the purpose of Adrenaline? | Provide a "fight or flight" response when in the face of a threat by activating processes that increase the supply of oxygen and glucose |
| What are (some of) the Target Organs of Adrenaline? | > Liver - change glycogen to glucose, which is released into the blood to raise blood sugar concentration > Heart - muscles rapidly contract strongly, increasing heart rate and blood pressure respectively > Blood Vessels - widens to increase blood flow to important organs and narrows to "unnecessary" organs (e.g. small intestine, kidney etc.) |
| What is a Fertilised Egg Cell called? | Zygote |
| What happens to a Zygote after Fertilisation? | Turns into an embryo after dividing in two ~24 hours later |
| What is a Condom and how does it Prevent Fertilisation? | Placed over the erect penis, a physical barrier that prevents sperm from entering the vagina |
| What is a Diaphragm or Cap and how does it Prevent Fertilisation? | Placed over the cervix, a physical barrier that prevents sperm in the vagina entering the uterus |
| What is a Hormone Pill / Implant and how does it Prevent Fertilisation? | Releases hormones to prevent ovulation and / or thickens the mucus at the cervix, making it difficult for sperm cells to pass through |
| What are the (Main) Stages of the Menstrual Cycle? | > Days 1 - 5: menstruation begins, in which the uterus lining breaks down and is lost with the unfertilised egg cell (period) > Days 4 - 14: uterus lining builds up again, becoming a thick, spongy layer full of blood vessels, ready for a fertilised egg to implant > Day 14: Ovulation, an egg is released from the ovary > Day 14 - 28: the uterus lining is maintained. Fertilisation is most likely to occur at this point. If unfertilised, cycle repeats |
| Menstruation Hormone Graph because yeah | |
| What is FSH and its Purpose? | > Follicle-Stimulating Hormone > Released by the pituitary gland > Causes a follicle (an egg and its surrounding cells) to mature in one of the ovaries > Stimulates œstrogen production > Released when œstrogen levels are high and progesterone levels are low > Inhibited by increasing progesterone levels |
| What is Œstrogen and its Purpose? | > Released by the ovaries > Causes the lining of the uterus to thicken and grow > Falling triggers menstruation > Released when the egg follicle is maturing > "Stops"ish being produced when the follicle bursts > High level stimulates LH surge |
| What is LH and its Purpose? | > Luteinising Hormone > Released by the pituitary gland > LH surge triggers ovulation - the follicle ruptures and the egg is released > Stimulates the remains of the follicle to develop into corpus luteum > Released when œstrogen levels are high > Inhibited by increasing progesterone levels |
| What is Progesterone and its Purpose? | > Released by the corpus luteum (in the ovaries) after ovulation > Maintains the lining of the uterus and inhibits the release of FSH and LH > Fall in progesterone and œstrogen causes the uterus lining to break down > Low progesterone levels allows FSH to increase > Stops being produced if corpus luteum breaks down |
| What happens Hormonally during Days 0 to 6 of Menstruation? | > Pituitary gland in the brain releases FSH > FSH travels to the ovaries > Stimulates a potential egg cell and follicle around it to develop > Follicle cells secrete œstrogen, which stimulates the rebuilding of the uterus wall > Initial concentrations of œstrogen are very low. The low concentration has a negative feedback effect on the secretion of FSH |
| What happens Hormonally during Days 10 to 13 of Menstruation? | > Follicles in the ovaries are now producing enough œstrogen to be detected by the brain > The effect of œstrogen on FSH production reverses > Brain produces FSH and LH - a positive feedback mechanism |
| What happens Hormonally during Day 14 of Menstruation? | > Peak of LH causes the follicle to burst and release an ovum (ovulation) > Follicle reforms to become a corpus luteum > Corpus luteum produces progesterone > Progesterone causes the uterus wall to thicken > Rising concentrations of progesterone and œstrogen have a negative feedback effect on FSH and LH, preventing new follicles from forming |
| What happens Hormonally during Day 28 of Menstruation? | > Fertilisation must occur within ~2 days of ovulation > Embryo takes 3 days to reach the uterus and implant > If no embryo implants, the corpus luteum breaks down > Progesterone and œstrogen concentrations fall - uterus lining begins to break down > FSH is no longer inhibited, so it begins to rise > Cycle repeats |
| What is Clomifene Therapy? | > Some women do not ovulate (regularly) > Clomifene increases the concentrations of FSH and LH in the blood > FSH and LH stimulates egg maturation and ovulation |
| What is IVF? | > In Vitro (outside the body) Fertilisation > Egg cell is fertilised externally in a petri dish before being implanted in the womb > The zygote is grown into an embryo (tiny balls of cells) > FSH and LH are given before egg collection to stimulate egg production |
| What is Homeostasis? | The maintaining of a constant internal body environment by responding to both internal and external changes, whilst balancing inputs and outputs |
| Where is Body Temperature Detected? | Hypothalamus |
| Why does Body Temperature need to stay Consistent? | > Enzymes have an optimum temperature where they work best > Human body's enzymes have an optimal temp of ~ 37°C > A change in this temperature triggers a response that counteracts it |
| What happens to the Body when it is too Hot? | > Erector muscles relax, so hairs lie flat (no goosebumps) > Lots of sweat is produced in the sweat glands, released onto the surface of the skin through pores. When it evaporates, it transfers energy from your skin to the environment, cooling down > Vasodilation - blood vessels widen to allow more blood near the surface so it can transfer more energy to the surroundings > Become thirsty - need to rehydrate cells |
| What happens to the Body when it is too Cold? | > Erector muscles contract - goosebumps, which traps an insulating layer of air near the surface of the skin > Vasoconstriction - blood vessels narrow to allow less blood near the surface so less energy is transferred to the surroundings > Shivering - muscles contract automatically, increasing the rate of respiration, transferring more energy to warm the body |
| What happens when Blood Glucose levels are too High? | > Pancreas releases insulin > Insulin causes cells in the liver and muscles to take in glucose, leaving a fall in glucose levels > Glucose is stored as glycogen |
| What happens when Blood Glucose levels are too Low? | > Pancreas releases glucagon > Glucagon causes the conversion of glycogen into glucose, which is then released into the blood |
| Why do Blood Glucose levels need to be Consistent? | High levels of glucose can damage cells in tissues and organs, which can lead to death (in extreme cases, such as diabetes) |
| What is Type 1 Diabetes and how is it Treated? | > Condition where the pancreas produces little to no insulin > Treated with insulin therapy - injecting insulin into the subcutaneous tissue, where it can enter the blood stream. Usually done at mealtimes to make sure the glucose is removed quickly > Also treated with limiting intake of foods rich in simple carbohydrates and taking regular exercise, to help remove excess glucose |
| What is Type 2 Diabetes and how is it Treated? | > Condition where pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin OR a person becomes resistant to insulin > Correlation between obesity and type 2 diabetes (although not all cases are due to obesity) > Controlled with a healthy diet, regular exercise and loosing weight (if necessary). Occasionally, medication or insulin injections are used, but not very common |
| What is Cell Metabolism? | > The chemical reactions in cells which are essential for life > Produces waste products like urea and CO₂ > Waste products end up in the blood and have to be removed or filtered |
| Why is Regulating Water Content Important? | > Keeps cells functioning normally > If concentration of water in the blood is too high, water will move into cells via osmosis, which can cause cells to burst > If concentration of water in the blood is too low, water will move out of the cells via osmosis, which can cause cells to shrink > Kidneys help regulate water content by controlling how much water is reabsorbed and how much is lost in urine |
| What are the 3 Main Roles of the Kidneys? | 1. Removal of urea from the blood - produced in the liver from the breakdown of excess amino acids - it is toxic 2. Adjustment of ion levels in the blood 3. Adjustment of water content in the blood |
| What parts are the Arrows Pointing to? | |
| What is the Purpose of the Renal Arteries? | Carry blood from the body to the kidneys |
| What is the Purpose of the Renal Vein? | Carry cleaned blood back to the body |
| What is the Purpose of the Ureters? | Carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder |
| What is the Purpose of the Bladder? | Store urine |
| What is the Purpose of the Urethra? | Allow urine to flow through to the outside of the body |
| How is the Nephron Adapted for Reabsorption of Substances? | > Overall large surface area > Cell membrane of the cells in the first convoluted tubule has tiny folds called microvilli, which increase the surface area to volume ratio > Cells that have protein pumps contain many mitochondria |
| What is each part of the Nephron and its Function? | |
| What happens during Ultrafiltration? | > Urine is made through a series of stages > Blood flows through a network of capillaries (the glomerulus), which runs inside the Bowman's capsule > The Bowman's capsule and glomerulus are adapted to let in small molecules, such as water, urea, and glucose, into the nephron > Large molecules, such as proteins and blood cells, stay in the blood |
| What is a Filtration Fluid and how is it used in the Nephron? | > Produced as a result of ultrafiltration > Flows along the nephron > Body needs to absorb useful substances > Glucose and mineral ions are reabsorbed by active transport in the proximal convoluted tubule > Water is absorbed into the blood by osmosis in the loop of Henle > More water solutes are absorbed in the collecting duct, the filtrate is now urine |
| What is a Diuretic? | A substance that promotes diuresis, which is the increased production of urine (e.g. tea, coffee, beer) |
| How is the amount of Water Reabsorbed by Nephrons Controlled? | > Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) > Released by the pituitary gland, controlled by the brain by monitoring water content of the blood > ADH makes the collecting ducts of the nephrons more permeable, so more water is reabsorbed back |
| What happens if there is an Increase of Water Concentration in the Blood? | > Detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus > Less ADH released from the pituitary gland > Wall of the collecting duct are less permeable to water > Less water is reabsorbed into the blood > More urine is produced |
| What happens if there is an Decrease of Water Concentration in the Blood? | > Detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus > More ADH released from the pituitary gland > Wall of the collecting duct are more permeable to water > More water is reabsorbed into the blood > Less urine is produced |
| What are Kidney Transplants? | > Organ donation for treatment of kidney failure > Permanent and means dialysis is not needed |
| What is the problem with Kidney Transplants? | > Requires several hours of surgery, which may not be suitable or > Kidney cells have antigens on them, which may be attacked: organ rejection > Antigens on a donor organ must be matched to the recipient's to avoid this > Life long medication is required to prevent organ rejection, which supresses the immune system, making them more susceptible to infections |
| What happens in Dialysis? | > Dialysis machine used to filter blood instead of the kidney > Needle inserted into a vein > Blood passes through into the dialysis machine > Dialysis fluid is pure water, with electrolytes, salts and glucose concentrations (no urea or waste products) > Tubing is partially permeable, which allows for diffusion > Urea diffuses from the blood into the fluid > Glucose has no net movement > Dialysis fluid now contains urea and is discarded > Cleaned blood is returned |
| thank god | that took a while |
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