GoConqr has a new look! Let us know what you think.

Sign up free

Flashcards

EXAM 1 physiology

Jillian Greenleaf English 200 cards

EXAM 1 physiology

Cards in this deck (200)

  1. 1What is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicficationfructose and monosaccharideWhat is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicfication
  2. 2What is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicficationglucose and monosaccharideWhat is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicfication
  3. 3What is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicficationgalactose and monosaccharideWhat is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicfication
  4. 4What is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicficationdeoxyribose and monosaccharideWhat is the name of the structure and carbohydrate classicfication
  5. 5what is this?phospholipidwhat is this?
  6. 6what are disaccharides?double sugars than can NOT pass though the cell membrane
  7. 7what are polysaccharidespolymers of simples sugar that are NOT very soluble
  8. 8what is this?triclyceridewhat is this?
  9. 9what are triclerides composed of?three fatty acids bonded do a glycerol molecules
  10. 10what are triclerides used for?energy storage, insulation, and protection
  11. 11what is this?saturated fatty acidwhat is this?
  12. 12what are saturated fatty acids?- single covalent bonds between C atoms
    - solid animals
    EX:butter
  13. 13what is this?unsaturated fatty acidswhat is this?
  14. 14what are unsaturated fatty acids?- one or more double bonds between C atoms
    EX: plants oils and olive oil
  15. 15what are trans fat?unhealthy - modified oils
  16. 16what are omega-3 fatty acidsheart health
  17. 17what structure is this?proteinwhat structure is this?
  18. 18what functional group is this?aminewhat functional group is this?
  19. 19what functional group is this?carboxylwhat functional group is this?
  20. 20what kind of bond is this?peptide bondwhat kind of bond is this?
  21. 21polar, non polar, +charge or - charge?non polarpolar, non polar, +charge or - charge?
  22. 22polar, non polar, +charge or - charge?polarpolar, non polar, +charge or - charge?
  23. 23polar, non polar, +charge or - charge?+ chargepolar, non polar, +charge or - charge?
  24. 24polar, non polar, +charge or - charge?- chargepolar, non polar, +charge or - charge?
  25. 25what are amino acids?building blocks of protein
  26. 26what does an amino acid contain?amino group and carboxyl group
  27. 27what stucture is this?amino acidwhat stucture is this?
  28. 28what are these two structures?amino acidswhat are these two structures?
  29. 29what structure is this?tertiary protein structure with S-S bondswhat structure is this?
  30. 30what structure is this?quaternary protein structure with covalent bondswhat structure is this?
  31. 31what kind of protein is this?contractile proteinwhat kind of protein is this?
  32. 32what kind of protein is this?communication proteinwhat kind of protein is this?
  33. 33what kind of protein is this?defensive proteinwhat kind of protein is this?
  34. 34what kind of protein is this?tranport proteinwhat kind of protein is this?
  35. 35what kind of protein is this?enzyme proteinwhat kind of protein is this?
  36. 36what kind of protein is this?structural proteinwhat kind of protein is this?
  37. 37what is macromolecule?it is composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound by peptide bonds
  38. 38what structure is this?phospholipidwhat structure is this?
  39. 39why is ATP great?- Broken down it releases 7.3kCal
    - Easy to break apart (electrostatic stress)
    - Complex is permeable and mobile
    - negative charges on ADP and P keep products apart
  40. 40what does NAD+ stand forNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
  41. 41what does FAD stand for?Flavin adenine dinucleotide
  42. 42what two coenzymes act as hydrogen accepts in oxidative pathwayFAD and NAD+
  43. 43what structure is thisNAD+
    Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide    what structure is this
  44. 44what structure is this?FAD
    Flavin adenine dinucleotide    what structure is this?
  45. 45what is does homeostasis mean?same --> same state
  46. 46what is the definition of homestasis?dynamic constancy
  47. 47what does glucose do?inhibits glycogen breakdown
  48. 48what is a feedback mechanism?a process or even that CAUSES another event which has an effect on the initial or subsequent event
  49. 49what interacts to maintain homeostasis?chemical, thermal, and neural factors
  50. 50what is the output in a feedback loop?information sent along efferent pathway to effector
  51. 51what is the input in a feedback loop?information sent along afferent pathway to control center
  52. 52what is the stimulus in a feedback loopproduces changes in variable
  53. 53what is the receptor in a feedback loop?receives the change from stimulus
  54. 54what is the control center in a feedback loop?determines the set point at which the variable is maintained.
  55. 55what is the effector in a feedback loop?provides the means to respond to the stimulus
  56. 56what happens in a negative feedback loop?the output (effector) SHUTS OFF, the original stimulus
  57. 57what is a positive feedback loop?a response that enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus.
  58. 58what is the set point for blood glucose?90 mg/dl
  59. 59what happens to blood glucose after eating sugary breakfast?-glucose enters blood from small intestine (creates imbalance)
    -blood reaches pancreas (islets of langehan-detector)
    *releases insulin (hormone) -->hits every receptor in body
    -body cells take up glucose
  60. 60what is the effector in the feedback loop for blood glucose going HIGH?1. every cell in the body
    2. liver-glucose-glycogen
  61. 61what happens to blood glucose after not eating?-blood going to pancreas
    -receptors for low release glucagon
    -travel blood to liver
    -breaks down glucose storage - glycogen
    -glucose enters body used by cells
  62. 62what is the effector in the feedback loop for blood glucose going LOW?glucagon (stimulates glycogen to break down glucose)
  63. 63what happens do the blood pressure when working out?-arterial blood pressure rises
    -receptors (baroreceptors in carotid sinus and aortic arch are stimulated)
    -send sensory neurons to brain
    -want to slow/decrease heart rate
    -vagus nerve stimulated release acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)
    -vessels dilate
    -increases volume and decreases pressure
  64. 64what is the effector for blood pressure going HIGH?1.vagus nerve
    2.vasomotor dilates
  65. 65what happens during LOW blood pressure?-more and more baroreceptor inhibited
    -decrease volume and increase pressure
    -increase heart rate through epinephrin
    -increase cardiac activity
    -return blood pressure to set point
  66. 66what is the standard heart rate120/80
  67. 67what are effectors for LOW blood pressure1.vasomotor contracts
    2.increase heart rate
  68. 68what is the buffer system equation?CO2 +H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> HCO3- +H+
  69. 69what does anabolic mean?build up
  70. 70what does catabolic mean?breaking down
  71. 71what synthesis does anabolic reactions do?dehydration synthesis
  72. 72what synthesis does catabolic reactions do?hydrolysis synthesis
  73. 73what do carbohydrates contain?1.carbon
    2.hydrogen
    3.oxygen
  74. 74what is the function of carbohydrates?supply a source of cellular food
  75. 75where is starch from?plants
  76. 76where are triglycerides found in the body?subcutaneous tissue and around organs
  77. 77where are phospholipids found in the body?cell membranes
  78. 78where are steroids found in the body?cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
  79. 79where are fat soluble vitamins found in the body?vitamins A, E, and K
  80. 80where are eicosanoids found in the body?prostaglandins, leukotriens, and thromboxanes
  81. 81where are lipoproteins found in the body?transport fatty acids and cholesterols in blood stream
  82. 82what do you need to break down triglycerides?3 water molecules
  83. 83what are phospholipids?modified triglycerides with 2 fatty acids and a phosphorus group
  84. 84where are phospolipids found?cell membranes
  85. 85what is the structure of steroids?it is a flat molecule with 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings
  86. 86why are steroids important?important in cell membranes, vitamin D synthesis, steroid hormone, and bile salts
  87. 87where do eicosanoids come from?derived from a fatty acid (arachidonic acid) found in cell membranes
  88. 88what is the most important eicosanoids?prostaglandins
  89. 89why are prostaglandins important?play a role in blood clotting, control of blood pressure, inflammation, and labor contractions.
  90. 90how many amino acids are there?20
  91. 91How do you tell if an amino acid is polar?look for OH
    *if it has an OH it is polar
  92. 92how many amino acids can we synthesize?64
  93. 93what are amino acids?building blocks of proteins
  94. 94what do amino acids contain?amino acid group and a carboxyl
  95. 95what are macromolecules composed of?combinations of 20 amino acids that are bound by peptide bonds
  96. 96ALL enzymes are protein but....NOT every protein is an enzyme
  97. 97what are the structural layers of proteins?1. primary
    2. secondary
    3. tertiary
    4.quaternary
  98. 98what are fibrous proteins?-extended and strandlike proteins
    EX: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain contractile fibers
  99. 99what are globular proteins?-compact spherical proteins with tertiary and quaternary structures
    EX: antibodies, some hormones. and enzymes
  100. 100what is denaturation?1. globular proteins unfold and lose functional, 3-D shape
    2. active site destroyed
  101. 101what causes denaturation?1.decreases PH
    2.increased temperature
    *is usually reversible
  102. 102what are enzymes?globular proteins that act as biological catalysts
  103. 103what do enzymes do?1. regulate and increase speed of chemical reactions
    2.lower the activation energy
    3.increase the speed of a chemical reaction
  104. 104what do enzymes interact with?small molecules
  105. 105what is competitive inhibition?can bind to E to affect binding of S to form ES
  106. 106what is non competitive inhibition?can bind to ES to affect conversion of S to P
  107. 107competitive inhibition-I competes with S for binding to E
    - Vmax unaffected but Km increases
    *can not have S and I binding to enzyme at same time
    *reduces enzymes affinity for its substrate
  108. 108non competitive inhibition- I can bind to either E or ES but substate can always bind to E
    *I binds to another site other than active site
    *inhibits enzyme by changing conformation
    *enzyme can have both S and I bound at same time
    *ESI complex forms
    *no reduces affinity for S
    *Km remains the same
    *Vmax decreases
    *cannot make more product
  109. 109where is energy stored?bonds
  110. 110when is energy released?when bonds are broken
  111. 111how does energy come into cell?energy comes into cells in the form of bond energy that holds molecules together
  112. 112what do cells extract?cells extract energy from these bonds
  113. 113what is the equation for oxidation of 1 mol of glucoseC6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 --> 6H2O
    *delta G is -686 k/cal/mol
  114. 114what is the metabolic oxidation of glucose by cells equation?C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 38Pi (inorganic phospate) + 38 ADP -->6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATM
    *delta G is -42- k/cal/mol lost as heat
  115. 115can ATP be stored?NOOOOO!!!!
  116. 116why is ATP great?1. is mobile and and go through cell membranes
    2. broken down releases 7.3 k/cal
    3. easy to break apart (electrostatic stress)
    4. complex is permeable
    5. negative charges on ADP and P keep products apart
    6. very quickly can be released
  117. 117ATP characteristics1. 250 grams (1/2 pound) in body at one time
    2. glucose --> 36 to 38 ATP
    3. each cell uses 10 million ATP cells per minute
    4. recycling important (ATP--> ADP +P=7.3Kcal)
    5. ATP used for everything
    *sodium potassium pump
    *muscle contration
    *kidney filtration
  118. 118what are the 2 mechanisms uses to make ATP from captured energy that is liberates during cellular respiration?1. substrate level phosphorylation
    2. oxidative phosporylation
  119. 119what is substrate level phosphorylation?- high energy phosphate groups are directly transferred from phosphorylated substrate to ATP
    *occurs twice in glycolysis
    *once in Krebs cycle
  120. 120what is oxidative phosphorylation?-more complex; creates more ATP
  121. 121what is the chemiosmotic process?couples movements of substances across membranes to chemical reactions
    *energy released from oxidation of food is used to pump H+ across inter mitochondrial membrane, creating a steep H+ concentration
    *as H+ flows through ATP synthase membrane channel protein, energy from flow is used to phosphorylate ADP
  122. 122what is carbohydrate metabolism?it is essentially glucose metabolism
  123. 123how is the oxidation of glucose shown?C6H12O6 +6O2 --> 6H2O + 6CO2 + 38 ATP + heat
  124. 124how is glucose catabolized? HINT: 3 pathways1. glycolysis
    2. Krebs cycle
    3. electron transport chain
  125. 125what are oxidative reactions?involve the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen atoms
  126. 126what happens to oxidized substances?lose electrons and energy
  127. 127what happens to reduced substances?gain electrons and energy
  128. 128how are redox reactions catalyzed?by enzymes that usually require a B vitamin coenzyme
  129. 129what is dehydrogenasecatalyze removal of hydrogen atoms
  130. 130what is oxidasecatalyze transfer of oxygen
  131. 131oxidation of glucose- called glycolytic pathway
    -has 10 steps
    - occurs in cytosol
    - glucoses is broken into 2 pyruvate molecules
  132. 132what does anaerobic mean?occurs despite presence/absence of O2
  133. 133what are the 3 major phases of oxidation of glucose?1. sugar activation
    2.sugar cleavage
    2.sugar oxidation and formation of ATP
  134. 134phase 1: sugar activation- glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to fructose 1,6 biphosphate
    - phosphorylated again by second ATP resulting in fructose 1,6 biphosphate
    *input of energy required
    *2 ATP used
  135. 135phase 2: sugar cleavagefructose 1,6 biphosphate is split into two 3-carbon fragments
    *fragments can interconvert into one of two isomers (dihydroxyacetone or glyceraldehyde - 3 phosphate
  136. 136phase 3: sugar oxidation and ATP formation(A) each 3 carbon fragment is oxidized bu removal of a pair of H, which is picked up by NAD+, forming reduced NADH+ + H+
    *H carries a portion of glucose's energy
    (B) in organic phosphate (Pi) are are then attached to each oxidized fragment
    *cleavage of these phosphate groups from both fragments will result in formation of 2 pyruvic acid and 4 ATPs by substrate level phosporylation
  137. 137what does LDH stand for?lactate dehydrogenase
  138. 138what does lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) do?assists pyruvic acid to lactic acid
  139. 139what is made for ATP in glycolysis?although 4 ATP are made, the 2 ATPs needed to prime system in phase 1 must be subtracted
  140. 140what are the final products of glycolysis?-2 pyruvic acid (C3H4O3)
    -2 reduced NAD+ (NAD + H+)
    - net gain of 2 ATP
  141. 141what do you need for glycolysis to continue?more NAD+ must be present to accept more hydrogen atoms
  142. 142what is limited in glycolysis?NAD+ is limited
  143. 143what does NADH do in glycolysis?NADH must donate its accepted hydrogen atoms to become NAD+ again to be free to pick up H+ so glycolysis can continue
  144. 144what happens if oxygen is PRESENT in glycolysis?NADH will transfer its H to proteins in electron transport chain
    *occurs in mitochondria
  145. 145what happens if oxygen is NOT present in glycolysis?NADH will give hydrogen atoms back to pyramid acid, reducing it to lactic acid
  146. 146what is the fate of lactic acid in glycolysis?-some may leave cell and be picked up by liver, which can convert it back to glucose - 6 - phosphate
    - some may be oxidized back to pyruvic acid when oxygen becomes available
    *can enter aerobic pathway
  147. 147what happens in prolonged anaerobic metabolism?acid-base problems
  148. 148compare and contrast glycolysis and aerobic respirationglycolysis results in faster ATP production than aerobic respiration but yields far less ATP
  149. 149what is another name for the citric acid cycle?krebs cycled
  150. 150where does citric acid cycle take place?mitochondrial matrix
  151. 151what is the citric acid fueled by?fueled by pyruvic acid from glucose breakdown and fatty acids from fat breakdown
  152. 152what must happen to the pyruvic acid in the citrus acid cycle?pyruvic acid must be actively transported into mitochondria because it is a charged molecule
  153. 153what happens once the pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria in the citrus acid cycle?once inside mitochondria, pyruvic acid enters transitional phase
  154. 154what is the transitional stage of the citrus acid cycle?it is where each pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl COA)
  155. 155how many steps does it take for pyruvic acid to be converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl COA)?(1) decarboxylation: 1 carbon from pyruvic acid is removed, producing CO2 gas which diffuses into blood to be expelled by lungs
    (2) oxidation: remaining 2-carbon fragments is oxidized to acetic acid by removal if H atoms, which are picked up by NAD+
    (3) formation of acetyl COA: acetic acid combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl COA
  156. 156what occurs in the citric acid cycle?coenzyme A then shuttles its acetic acid to an enzyme in citric acid cycle that joins it to 4 carbon oxaloacetic acid
    *produced 6 carbon citric acid
  157. 157Why is called the citrus acid cycle?during 8 steps, original acetic acid is decarboxylated and oxidized to keto acid intermediates, resulting in NADH+ + H+ , FADH2 and CO2
  158. 158what is the final step of the citric acid cycle?in final step, oxaloacetic acid is regenerated
  159. 159what do we get for EACH turn of the citric acid cycle?-2 CO2 from decarboxylation
    - 4 molecules of reduced enzymes
    - 3 NADH + H+
    - 1 FADH2
    - 1 ATP (by substrate level phosphorylation)
  160. 160what does the citric acid cycle start with?2 pyruvic acid
  161. 161what does it mean when the citrus acid starts with 2 pyruvic acid?it means that the final products form 1 glucose is doubled
    *4CO2, 6NADH + H+ and 2 ATP
  162. 162what is the addition of products from transitional phase and total final product for 1 glucose?-6CO2
    -8 NAD + H+
    -2FADH2
    -2ATP
  163. 163what is the chem-osmotic process - Mitchell?1. electrons flow down respiratory chain
    2.at various points protons H+ are forced from matriculates so that they reside between inner and outer membrane
    3. a H+ gradient is established between inner and outer membrane
    4. flow of protons back into matrix through the ATP synthase channel provided the energy needed for P to combine with ADP--->ATP
    5. H+ + 2e- =1/2O2 -->H2O (cannot have 1/2 O so..)
    6. 4H+ + 4e- =O2 -->2H20
  164. 164what are two mechanisms used for the oxidation of glucose?1.electron transport chain
    2.oxidative phosphorylation
  165. 165what are the stages of oxidative phosphorylation?stage 1: electron transport chain; creates a proton (H+) gradient across mitochondrial membrane using high energy electrons removed from H from food fuels
    stage 2: chemiosmosis; uses the energy of the proton gradient to synthesize ATP
  166. 166what is special about the electron transport chain?only pathway that directly uses oxygen
  167. 167will the citric acid cycle run without oxygen?citric acid cycle will NOT run if oxygen is NOT present, but does NOT directly use oxygen
  168. 168explain the electron transport chain- NADH + H+ and FADH2 (from glycolysis and krebs cycle deliver hydrogen atoms taken from glucose to ETC proteins
    - ETC will use energy harnessed in electrons of hydrogen to pump H+ across membrane to create proton gradient
    *some H+ will combine with O2 to produce water
  169. 169how does the electron transport harvest energy?ETC harvests energy of food fuels a little bit at a time to avoid damage to cell
  170. 170what does the electron transport chain involve?ETC involves a chain of carrier proteins, located on inner mitochondrial membrane that contain metal atoms (cofactors)
  171. 171what is flavin?proteins derived from riboflavin (ETC complexed I and II)
  172. 172what are cytochromes?proteins with iron containing pigment (complexes III and IV)
  173. 173how are respiratory enzymes formed?by neighboring complexes that cluster together
  174. 174what happens to the proteins at each complex?each protein of complex is alternately reduced and oxidized as it picks up and passes off an electron
  175. 175what are the 3 stages of the electron transport chain?1. complex I and II accept hydrogen from NADH and FADH2
    *NAD+ and FAD can now return to glycolysis and Krebs cycle
    2. hydrogen atoms are split into H + (protons) + electrons (e-)
    *electrons are passed down chain
    *each complex is reduced when it accepts e-, then oxidized when it passes electrons onto next complex (coenzyme Q and cytochrome C act to shuttle electrons between complexes)
  176. 176what is step 2 of the electron transport chain?- a little energy from electron is released with each transfer
    -energy released is used by complexes I, III, and IV to pump H+ out into intermembrane space of mitochondrial, creating an H+ concentration gradient
  177. 177what is step 3 of the electron transport chain?- at complex IV, electron pairs combine with some H+ and a molecule of oxygen to form water
    *2H+ + 2e- + 1/2O2 -->H2O
  178. 178what is the net reaction for ETC?-net reaction for ETC
    *coenzyme - 2H +1/2(O2) -->coenzyme + H2O
  179. 179what is glycogenesis?-synthesizes glycogen from glucose
    -occurs when glucose supplies exceed demand for ATP
  180. 180what is glycogenolysis?-breaks down glycogen to release glucose
    -stimulated by low blood glucose
  181. 181what do rising intracellular levels of ATP inhibit?rising intracellular levels of ATP inhibit glucose catabolism and promote glycogen or fat formation
  182. 182can cells store ATP?cells cannot store large amounts of ATP
  183. 183what is glycogenesis?-glycogen can be formed with excess glucose
    *catalyzed by GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS
    - mostly occurs in LIVER and SKELETAL muscles
  184. 184what is glycogenolysis?-breakdown of glycogen via glycogen phosphorylase in response to low blood glucose
    - liver cells, as well as some kidney and intestinal cells, also contain enzyme GLUCOSE - 6 - PHOSPHATE that removes terminal phosphate, producing free glucose
    * glucose can then enter blood stream to be used by other cells
  185. 185describe ATP synthase mechanism1. protons (H+) flow down their electrochemical gradient through the stationary STATOR
    2. each H+ binds to a subunit of the ROTOR causing it to change shape and making the rotor spin
    3. the spinning rotor turns the connecting ROD
    4. as the rod spins, it activates catalytic sites in the KNOB that join Pi to ADP to make ATP
  186. 186what is the equation of the METABOLIC oxidation of glucose?C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 38 Pi + 38 ADP --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP (delta G = -420 kcal/mol
  187. 187How much energy is incorporated into 36 or 38 mols of ATP?thus 686 - 420 = 266 kcal of energy is incorporated into 36 or 38 mols of ATP (7.3kcal/mol ATP)
  188. 188how many ATP would you synthesize for 100% efficiency?so if 100% efficient we would synthesize approx. 98 mol ATP
  189. 189how many moles and how efficient is the ATP aerobically?only 36 to 38 ATP aerobically (39% efficient)
  190. 190how many moles and how efficient is the ATP for anaerobic?approx 2% and only 2 ATP produced
  191. 191what is the cori cycle (gluconeogenesis)?(1) once glucose adds phosphate to form G6P and start glycolysis it cannot leave muscle cells and get back into blood
    (2) normally in OXYGEN rich environment, the 2 pyruvate enter mitochondria and then convered to acetyl COA and enter Krebs cycle
    (3) if OXYGEN DEBT (typically exercising) then pyruvate converted to lactate/lactic acid and only 2 ATP are created
  192. 192what happens mechanically in the cori cycle (gluconeogenesis)?(1) in liver, lactate can be converted back to pyruvate (requires LACTIC ACID DEHYDROGENASE) which is only found in the liver
    (2) to convert pyruvate back to G6P requires 6ATP (need fuel to recover after exercise)
    (3) to convert G6P to glucose requires GLUCOSE - 6 - PHOSPHATE which is only found in the liver
  193. 193what are the two important coenzymes that act as hydrogen (or electron) acceptors in oxidative pathway?- nicotinamide adenide dinucleotide (NAD)
    -flavin adenide dinucleotide (FAD)
  194. 194what does 2C stand for?acetyl
  195. 195what does 3C stand for?pyruvate
  196. 196most energy released from glucose during cellular respiration is seen asheat
  197. 197T/F maltose is made up of glucose and galactoseFALSE
  198. 198define glycolysisconverts glucose to pyruvic acid
  199. 199define glycogenesispolymerizes glucose to form glycogen
  200. 200define glycogenolysishydrolyzes glycogen to glucose monomers

Information

Description
Flashcards on EXAM 1 physiology , created by Jillian Greenleaf on 02/02/2022.
Views
6
Rating

Feedback

What is it about?

What do you think of the new look?

How do you like it?