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| Question | Answer |
| CHNOPS | Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur. The most significant elements found in all organisms. |
| Molecule | When two or more atoms bond together |
| Compound | When two or more different elements bond together |
| Ion | When electrons are transferred from one atom to another. Ionic compounds are held together by an attraction between negatively and positively charged ions called an Ionic bond. (NaCl or table salt) These are weak bonds (salt dissolves in water) |
| Covalent Bond | Is the sharing of electrons in such a way that each atom has a complete outer orbital. This normally between two nonmetals. These are strong bonds |
| Nonpolar Covalent Bond | When the sharing of electrons between two atoms is fairly equal. (H 2, O 2, CH 4) |
| Polar Covalent Bond | The unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond. (Water is a polar molecule) |
| Hydrogen Bonding | A weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom within the same or a different molecule. This bond is weaker than Ionic and Covalent bonding however many of the important properties of water are due to hydrogen bonding. (Hydrogen bonds hold two strands of DNA together) |
| Properties of Water | 1. Water has a high heat capacity (can absorb and hold heat energy 2. Water has a high heat of vaporization 3. Water is a solvent 4. Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive 5. Water has a high surface tension 6. Frozen water is less dense than liquid water |
| Acids | Substances that release hydrogen (H+) when they disassociate in water. Therefore they contain a higher concentration of hydrogen (H+) ions than hydroxide (OH-) ions (lemon juice, tomatoes, vinegar, coffee, hydrochloric acid) |
| Bases | Bases are substances that either take up hydrogen ions (H+) or release hydroxide ions (OH-). They contain a higher concentration of OH- than H+. (baking soda, antacids, sodium hydroxide) |
| pH Scale | Used to indicate the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of solutions. A pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 represents a neutral state in which H+ = OH-. A pH below 7 is an acidic solution because the hydrogen ion concentration is greater than the hydroxide concentration. A pH above 7 is basic because hydroxide ion concentration is granter than hydrogen ion. concentration. |
| Buffer | A substance that keeps pH within normal limits. |
| If blood pH falls below 7.4 (alkaline) | Acidosis sets in. Life threatening. |
| If blood goes above a pH of 7.4 (alkaline) | alkalosis sets in. Life threatening. |
| Organic Molecules | Always contain Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H). |
| Monomer | Simple organic molecule that exists individually or can link with other monomers to form: |
| Polymer | Form when monomers link with other monomers. |
| Monomers -- > Polymers | M: Monosaccharide P: Carbohydrate Polysaccharide (Starch, glycogen, cellulose) M: Fatty Acid P: Lipid M: Amino Acid P: Protein M: Nucleotide P: Nucleic Acid |
| Dehydration Reaction | A way of joining monomers to build polymers. An OH and an H (the equivalent of a water molecule) are removed as the reaction proceeds. |
| Hydrolysis Reaction | The components of water are added breaking down a polymer to monomers. |
| Carbohydrates | Function for quick fuel and short-term energy shortage in all organisms. Class of organic compounds that typically contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio; includes the monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Carbohydrate molecules are characterized by the presence of the atomic grouping H-C-OH. |
| Monosaccharide | If the number of Carbon atoms in a molecule is low (from 3 to 7) then the Carbohydrate is a simple sugar, or monosaccharide. Pentose is a 5-Carbon sugar and hexose is a 6-Carbon sugar. Glucose is a hexose sugar found in our blood. Glucose, Fructose, Galactose all occur as ring structures with the molecular formula C6 H12 O6 |
| Disaccharide | Contains two monosaccharides that have joined during a dehydration reaction. (sucrose, lactose) |
| Polysaccharide | Long polymers such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose that contain many glucose subunits. Starch and glycogen are large storage forms of glucose found in plants and animals. Starch has fewer side branches, or chains of glucose that branch off the main chain than does glycogen. |
| Lipids | Contain more energy per gram than other biological molecules while fats and oils function as energy storage molecules in organisms. Fats and oils form when one glycerol molecule reacts with three fatty acid molecules (Fig. 2.19). A fat molecule is sometimes called a triglyceride because of its three-part structure, and the term neutral fat is sometimes used because the molecule is non polar. The are insoluble in water. Phospholipids are important structural components of the cell membrane. Phospholipids, Fats and Oils, Steroids |
| Fats and Oils | Fats used for long-term energy storage, insulates against heat loss, forms a protective cushion around major organs, tend to be animal derived, and are solid at room temperature. Oils tend to be plant derived and are liquid at room temperature. They form when one glycerol molecule reacts with three fatty acid molecules (triglyceride or neutral fat). |
| Saturated vs Unsaturated Fats vs Trans Fat | Saturated: No double covalent bonds between carbon atoms (lard and butter) Unsaturated: Double bonds between carbon atoms wherever the number of hydrogens is less than two per carbon atom (vegetable oils) Trans: produced by hydrogenation or the chemical addition of hydrogen to vegetable oils (processed foods) |
| Phospholipids | Contain a phosphate group. They are constructed like fats, except that in place of the third fatty acid, there is a polar phosphate group or a grouping that contains both phosphate and nitrogen. The molecule has a polar (hydrophilic) head while the rest of the molecule becomes non polar (hydrophobic). |
| Steroids | Backbone of four fused carbon rings (cholesterol) |
| Proteins | Polymers composed of amino acid monomers. An amino acid has a central carbon bonded to a hydrogen atom and three functional groups. The R group determines the uniqueness of each amino acid. Some proteins are enzymes. |
| Enzymes | Speed chemical reactions, biological catalyst |
| Enzyme Cycle | 1. Enzyme and substrate come together at active site of enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. 2. Enzyme catalyzes reaction and transforms substrate into products. 3. When reaction is complete, enzyme is unchanged and free to catalyze same reaction again on a new substrate. |
| 6 Major Classes of Enzymes | Ligase, Lyase, Hydrolase, Transferase, Isomerase, Oxido-reductase, Kinase |
| Peptide | A polypeptide is a single chain of amino acids. A peptide bond joins two amino acids. |
| Levels of Protein Organization | 1. Primary Structure is the linear sequence of the amino acids. 2. Secondary Structure occurs when the protein takes on a certain orientation in space (alpha helix, beta sheet) 3. Tertiary Structure is the final three-dimensional shape, due in part to the various bonding between R groups. 4. Quaternary Structure is found in proteins with multiple polypeptide chains. |
| Denaturing of a Protein | When proteins are exposed to extreme heat or pH |
| Nucleic Acids | DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (ribonucleic acid) Both are polymers of nucleotides and every nucleotide is a molecular complex of Phosphate, Pentose Sugar (Ribose or Deoxyribose), and nitrogen-containing base |
| DNA | DNA stores genetic information and replicates to transmit its information when a cell divides or organism reproduces. It also contains the instructions for producing RNA. |
| DNA | Sugar: Deoxyribose Bases: (A) Adenine, (G) Guanine, (T) Thymine, (C) Cytosine (T) Thymine always pairs with (A) Adenine, (G) Guanine always pairs with (C) Cytosine Double stranded helix |
| RNA | Contains the instructions for producing proteins, which direct most of life's processes. |
| RNA | Sugar: Ribose Bases: (A) Adenine, (G) Guanine, (U) Uracil, (C) Cytosine (A) Adenine always pairs with (U) Uracil, (G) Guanine always pairs with (C) Cytosine Single stranded Formed by complementary base pairing with one DNA strand. |
| ATP | High-Energy molecule that undergoes hydrolysis and energy is released. It is the energy currency of the cell. |
| Nucleotide | Each nucleotide of a nucleic acid contains a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and nitrogen-containing base. |
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