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Flashcards

Higher Human Biology

Wawa Bawa English 63 cards

Cards in this deck (63)

  1. 1How is the safety and effectiveness of drugs and vaccines established before licensed use?Clinical Trials
  2. 2What is the Placebo Effect/Placebo-controlled test and what does it do?One group is given the actual vaccine while the other is given a fake one to ensure valid comparisons.
  3. 3What is a Double Blind Trial and what does it do?When neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subject groups are in to prevent biased interpretation of results.
  4. 4What does it mean when a Clinical Trial is randomized and why is it designed that way?Information about each individual, such as age or gender, is hidden so that the groups are made random and are not based on current health which eliminates bias.
  5. 5Why should the sample group size be suitable in a clinical trial?To reduce experimental error and to establish statistical significance.
  6. 6Why are the results at the end of a clinical trial compared?To determine whether there are any statistically significant differences between the groups
  7. 7What is Immunization and how can it develop?The process in which a person develops immunity to a disease causing organism, this can be developed by vaccination using antigens from infectious pathogens to create memory cells.
  8. 8What is Active Immunity?The protection gained as a result of the person's body producing it's own antibodies
  9. 9What is Naturally Acquired Immunity?When the person has acquired active immunity by natural means such as surviving the infection by a pathogen which allows a secondary response to occur if they are exposed to this antigen again
  10. 10What are Vaccinations made from?Antigens from infectious pathogens that are usually mixed with an adjuvant.
  11. 11What is an adjuvant?A chemical substance which makes the vaccine more effective, so enhancing the immune response
  12. 12What is Herd Immunity?The protection of non-immune individuals if the majority of the population is immune, as there is a lower probability that they will come into contact with infected individuals
  13. 13What is the Herd Immunity Threshold?The percentage of immune individuals in a population where a disease can no longer persist
  14. 14What does three things does the Herd Immunity Threshold depend on?- Type of disease
    - Effectiveness of Vaccine
    - Density of Population
  15. 15What are some reasons why mass vaccination may be difficult to carry out?- Poverty in Countries
    - Malnourishment in Countries
    - Rejection of Vaccines due to negative publicity about it
  16. 16What is Antigenic Variation?Pathogens changing their antigens which means they can avoid the effect of immunological memory (memory cells are not effective)
  17. 17Why must High Risk individuals need to be vaccinated every year for the influenza?The Influenza has antigenic variation so they need to be vaccinated with a new version of the vaccine to keep up with the virus' evolution
  18. 18What are Lymphocytes?White blood cells involved in the specific immune response which respond to specific antigens on invading pathogens
  19. 19What are Antigens?Molecules, often proteins, located on the surface of cells that trigger a specific immune response
  20. 20What are the 2 types of Lymphocytes?B and T Lymphocytes
  21. 21What is Clonal Selection?- The antigen and Lymphocyte binding together that leads to lymphocytes dividing repeatedly.
    - This forms clonal population of identical lymphocytes
  22. 22What do B Lymphocytes attack?Invaders outside of the cells
  23. 23What do B Lymphocytes produce?Antibodies against antigens which leads to the destruction of the pathogen
  24. 24What forms the Antigen-Antibody complex?Antibodies becoming bound to antigens which inactivates the pathogen
  25. 25What do Phagocytes do to Antigen-Antibody complexes?Engulf and digest them through Phagocytosis
  26. 26What is an Allergic Reaction?The immune system over-reacting by hypersensitive B Lymphocytes responding to harmless substances
  27. 27What do T Lymphocytes do?Destroy infected body cells by recognizing antigens of the pathogen on the cell membrane, inducing Apoptosis
  28. 28What is Apoptosis?Programmed Cell Death
  29. 29Describe the Action of T Lymphocytes: (3)- T Lymphocytes attach onto infected cells and release proteins
    - These proteins diffuse into the infected cells causing the production of self-destructive enzymes which leads to cell death
    - The remains of the cell are removed by phagocytosis
  30. 30What causes Autoimmune Diseases?When the immune system fails to regulate, it is called Autoimmunity.
    This leads to T Lymphocytes launching an attack on its own body cells, leading to autoimmune diseases
  31. 31What is Immunological Memory?When some T and B Lymphocytes produced in response to antigens by clonal selection survive long term as memory cells
  32. 32What is beneficial about Immunological Memory?During the secondary response, antibody production is greater and more rapid than the primary response
    Destroying invading pathogens before the individual symptoms show
  33. 33What causes an Immunodeficiency Disease?The absence or failure of some components in the immune system due to pathogens evolving to attack it, leaving the person vulnerable to infection
  34. 34What is AIDS?A deficiency disease caused by HIV as HIV attacks and destroys T Lymphocytes
  35. 35Describe how HIV leads to AIDS: (4)- HIV attaches itself to specific receptors on the T Lymphocytes surface and attacks it
    - As the number of T Lymphocytes decrease, so does the body's immune response
    - This leaves the person more vulnerable to infection as they now have AIDS
  36. 36How is HIV treated?The amount of virus in the blood reduces to undetectable levels so that it cannot be passed on
    As of right now, it can not be fully cured
  37. 37What are T/B Lymphocytes and Phagocytes made from?Bone Marrow
  38. 38What activates the production of a clone of T Lymphocytes?Antigen-Presenting Cells
  39. 39What is released to move the T Lymphocytes to the size of infection?Cytokines
  40. 40What are Pathogens?Organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, that can cause diseases
  41. 41What are two Physical Barriers and what do they do?- Epithelial cells that are closely-packed on the surface of the skin
    - Inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems
    - Prevents pathogens from entering body tissues from the external environment
  42. 42What are the three chemical secretions?- Tears + Saliva which contain enzymes that digest pathogens
    - Cells in the respiratory system secrete sticky mucus to detain pathogens
    - The Epithelial lining of the stomach secrets stomach acid which destroys pathogens
  43. 43How does the body respond to infection or irritation?Inflammatory Response
  44. 44How is the Inflammatory Response identified? (4)- Redness
    - Swelling
    - Heat
    - Pain
  45. 45What do Mast Cells produce?Histamine
  46. 46What does Histamine do?- Causes blood vessels to vasodilate
    - Causes capillaries to become more permeable meaning plasma, protein and white blood cells can pass through more easily
  47. 47What does the increased blood flow lead to in the Inflammatory Response?An accumulation of phagocytes (white blood cells) and clotting elements at the site of infection
  48. 48What do the Clotting Elements do?Converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin which forms a mesh to keep the infection localized
  49. 49What are Phagocytes?White blood cells that recognise pathogens and destroy them by phagocytosis
  50. 50Describe Phagocytosis: Stage 1-31. Phagocytes detect pathogens
    2. Phagocytes engulf the pathogen by infolding the cell membrane to create a vacuole
    3. Phagocytes contain lysosomes, which contain digestive enzymes, and are released to digest the pathogen
  51. 51Describe Phagocytosis: Stage 4-64. Breakdown products are absorbed by the phagocyte
    5. Once digested, the Phagocyte releases cytokines which attract more phagocytes to the infected area to continue battling pathogens
    6. Dead bacteria and phagocytes accumulate at the infected site as a pus
  52. 52What three things make up a Neuron and which directed does a nerve impulse travel?Dendrites -> Cell Body -> Axon
  53. 53What are axons surrounded by?Myelin Sheath
  54. 54What do Myelin Sheaths do?Insulates the axon and increases the speed of impulse conduction
  55. 55What are the gaps on a myelin sheath called?Nodes
  56. 56Why are responses to stimuli in the first two years of life less rapid and coordinated compared to older children or adults?Less Myelination
  57. 57What happens if the Myelin Sheath is destroyed?Loss of Coordination
  58. 58What are the 2 main roles Glial Cells play?1. Physically support neurons
    2. Produce the Myelin Sheath (Myelination)
  59. 59Describe Neurotransmission: Stage 1-31. Electrical Impulse arrives at the pre-synaptic neuron
    2. Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles in the axon end and are released into the synaptic cleft
    3. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the post-synaptic cleft neuron
  60. 60Describe Neurotransmission: Stage 5-65. The receptors determine whether the signal is excitatory or inhibitory
    6. Enzyme degradation or reuptake remove excess neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft to prevent continuous stimulation
  61. 61How is Weak Stimuli filtered out?1. Synapses can filter out weak stimuli arising from insufficient secretion of neurotransmitters
    2. Impulses are only transmitted if a minimum number of Neurotransmitters attach to receptors on the post-synaptic membrane, this is known as a threshold
  62. 62What is Summation?Summation of a series of weak stimuli can release enough neurotransmitters to trigger an impulse
  63. 63—

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Flashcards on Higher Human Biology, created by Wawa Bawa on 17/05/2025.
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Wawa Bawa
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