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Flashcards

Geog 1011

Pippa Holman English 198 cards

What is meant by Nova Scotia's risk ecology?

Cards in this deck (198)

  1. 1What are supercells?- Storm clouds that extend into the stratosphere
    - Include tornados
    - 200 mph winds
  2. 2What happen in Washington?Tornado killed 10 people
    The line of the path showed how close many more people were to being affected by it
  3. 3What are the characteristics of hurricanes?- 200 mph + winds
    - Can affect 1000s square miles
  4. 4What happened in Yungay, Peru?- May 31st 1970
    - Nazca plate subduction zone 20km off the coast of Peru slipped - under sea earthquake of 7.9 on the Richter scale
    - Triggered destabilisation of North wall of Huascaran. The Cornice fell 1000m and created a 100mph landslide
    - Within 2 minutes, 61 million m3 rock/mud
    - 17,000 dead in the village of 20,000 (100 survivors)
    - 25,000 dead in the valley, 47,500 in region
    - 500,000 homeless
  5. 5What is a natural process?The natural event itself
  6. 6When does a natural process become a disaster?When it has an impact on society
  7. 7What are the conditions for something to be considered a hazard?1.People have to be vulnerable
    2. They exceed individuals' and communities' means to thrive and survive
    They have fundamental uncertainties for the exact details of where and when they will occur
  8. 8What is an industry that thrives off of disaster?The insurance industry
  9. 9What are the main questions asked when thinking about natural events?1. Can we predict them?
    2. Can we protect the most vulnerable?
    3. Can we minimise damage?
    4. Can we help the recovery?
  10. 10What is meant by a disaster?- A natural or man- made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often resulting in permanent changes to human societies, ecosystems and the environment
  11. 11What is a hazard?A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation
    They can have latent conditions that may represent future threats and different origins (natural or human)
  12. 12How could climate change be having an effect on hazards?- May not be in number, but in the frequency
  13. 13What has been the increase in recent years of the associated economic losses through natural events?60s - $75.5 bn
    70s - $138.4 bn
    80s - $213.9 bn
    90s - $659.9 bn
  14. 14Who are the most vulnerable to natural events?- The poorest as they have the least ability to respond and prepare
    - 85% of those exposed to natural events live in countries with medium or low human development
    - Questions over redistributing power to reduce the effects
  15. 15What is a natural hazard?1. Very high intensity
    2. Relatively low frequency
    3. Restricted spatial impact
    4. Almost always unexpected (unpredicted rather than unpredictable)
  16. 16What has been the progression of thought for hazards?PRE 1950 - THE BEHAVIOURAL PARADIGM- Acts of God
    - Acceptance of disasters being outside of out control
    - Monitor and contain the hazard
    - Disaster plans and emergency response
    - Response and recovery the most important
    1950 ON - STRUCTURALIST PARADIGM
    - Gilbert White (1947) - disasters are linked to human behaviour
    - Vulnerability drives impact
    - Human exploitation causes disasters
    - Poverty creates vulnerability
    - Need to re-distribute power
  17. 17What is the difference between the behavioural and structural approaches to natural disasters?BEHAVIOURAL
    - Science of monitoring hazards (magnitude/ frequency)
    - Science and progression of the disaster risk reduction cycle
    STRUCTURAL
    - Government policy creating inequality and risk
    - Power and injustice
    - Human exploitation of human and non-human groups
    - Making risk choices
  18. 18What is risk?Hazard + Vulnerability
  19. 19What is meant by vulnerability?1. The exposure to the hazards
    2. The ability to adapt to the hazard (age of the person)
  20. 20What is disaster management?(see diagram)
    Disaster --> response --> recovery --> mitigation --> preparedness --> disaster
  21. 21What is meant by preparedness?The activities prior to the disaster
    (preparedness plans/ emergency exercises/ training/ warning systems)
  22. 22What is meant by response?The activities during the disaster
    (public warning systems/ emergency operations/ search and rescue)
  23. 23What is meant by recovery?Activities following a disaster
    (temporary housing/ claims processing and grants / long term medical care and counselling)
  24. 24What is meant by mitigation?Activities that reduce the effects of disasters
    (building codes and zoning/ vulnerability analyses/ public education)
  25. 25What disaster events are so unlikely to happen but could spell the end of the world?- Mass extinction events (from meteorite impacts) some previous ones are thought to have made 99% of sea life extinct
    - Life on Earth to end in 1.5bn years - sun gets too close and hot that oceans boil and atmosphere blows out (3-4bn years makes for the ultimate extinction of the Earth)
  26. 26What are the main points of the Mount St. Helen's eruption?- Killed 57
    - May 18th 1980
    - David Johnston (volcanologist) worked to close all the parks in the surrounding area, saving 1000s of lives, but died himself
    - Geological surveys carefully managing the site
    - Cryptodome made on the inside of the volcano - N-side bulge (6ft p/day increase)
    - Landslide after an earthquake opened the bulge + caused 'lateral blast' of ash and rocks
    - 230miles2 destroyed in 5-9 mins
    - Geologists quickly went to the site to do experiments and find ways of how to mitigate the effects elsewhere
  27. 27What are the key inputs of determining hazards?Magnitude and frequency
  28. 28What are the effects of knowing the frequency and size of natural hazards?It is important for the communities living in the area and the insurers who may pay for the damage
    It affects
    1. People's perceptions of risk
    2. Insurance risk
    3. Societies response to events
  29. 29How is magnitude and frequency defined?1. The probability of such and event
    2. The recurrence interval (return period)
  30. 30What is meant by the recurrence interval?How often a discrete event occurs
    (Looks at the continuous scale of the severity impacts)
  31. 31What is meant by randomness?A process we don't understand and can't attribute a probability to
  32. 32What is meant by forecasting?The future likelihood of random events
  33. 33What is meant by frequency analysis?- What is the chance of a certain size event occurring?
    - What is the probability of getting an event greater than or equal to x?
    (we will normally ignore the small hazards)
  34. 34How does frequency analysis estimate the probability of a hazard event of differing sizes happening?Time series data which can also be transformed to frequency data
    (e.g. flood peak magnitudes)
  35. 35What is the importance of statistical analysis?- Regressions can be made
    - They give best guesses to the magnitude and the frequency
  36. 36What is the empirical distribution function?- All data is ranked and each event is plotted against the proportion of events greater than it
  37. 37What is meant by stationarity?- Assumes the mean and variants are assumed not to vary over time
    HOWEVERRRRRRR
    trends/ persistence and intermittency in the behaviour of natural systems makes these assumptions insecure (1 in 100 year floods now happening every 4 years...!)
  38. 38How do we know the frequency of disasters increased?- Reconstructions of event frequencies and magnitude of climate independent and climate dependent events
  39. 39What is a climate independent event?Volcanoes
  40. 40What is a climate dependent event?Coastal storms
  41. 41How can the records for volcanic events be extended?1. Establishing ice core chronology
    2. Separate volcanic sulphates from other sulphate sources
    3. Quantify the volume of sulphate flux
    4. Account for uncertainty in chronology and separation method
    5. Test against known eruption events (fingerprint eruption using tephra)
  42. 42How is tephra chronology carried out?- Determining the geochemistry of tephra
    - Match to database of eruptions geochemistry
    - Identify the known dated eruption
  43. 43What does the proxy data for volcanic eruptions show?- There have been many larger volcanic eruptions in the past
    - There is no real trend in the natural hazard time series
    - Large events are infrequent but random
    - We can identify the location and frequency of very large eruptions and use this to define risk IF we can identify their origin
  44. 44How is the record of tropical cyclones extended?* 'Where there's mud, there's flood'
    *Back barrier sediments as cyclone recorders
    * Can be time series of proxy hurricane landfall in the tropical Atlantic for example
  45. 45What do we learn from the record of tropical cyclones?- There have been many cyclone landfall events in the past
    - There has been considerable variability and uncertainty, but phases of increase cyclone landfall broadly correlates with climate changes
    - There's been a recent increase in cyclone activity
  46. 46What does disaster frequency data show?- There has been seen to be a different pattern for different hazards and climate driven hazards show greatest increases
    - Geophysical hazards still show an increase - is this because of population increases (as a disaster by definition has to have an impact on people)
  47. 47How has the growth in the human population affected hazards and disaster?- The number of people has increased
    - Where we live has an impact on hazard risk (coasts/ deltas)
    - The number of natural hazards won't necessarily correlate to number of people affected by the hazard for different countries
  48. 48Why is population important on hazards?- Demography of populations is a function of peoples ability to choose
    - Choice is driven by wealth, political structures (borders)
    - Movement of people into areas or change in socio economic status causes more VULNERABILITY
    - Humans also are impacting the magnitude and frequency of the natural events in the first place
    - Developing nations have the widest population growth and least supplies...
    - Asia has the most disasters
  49. 49What is a key difference between events and disaster?An event is natural, a disaster is not
  50. 50What were the key facts of the 2011 Japanese earthquake and subsequent tsunami?*3rd most powerful earthquake ever recorded - over 9 on richter scale (biggest in Japan)
    *Epicentre is 70km off Japan and shifted the mainland 2.5cm East
    * Japan sits on the Pacific plate subduction zone
    *Energy from the earthquake was turned to tsunami of 40m + waves - as they break they become shorter but faster and spread miles inland
    *An ecological and human disaster - 16000 dead, 228,863 homeless and $235bn damage
    *Agriculture ruined by the salts
  51. 51What was the difference between the 2011 Japanese tsunami and the 2004 boxing day tsunami?- More died in the boxing day tsunami as they didn't have the economic or infrastructural resources
    - Even though epicentre was closer in the Japanese
  52. 52What does disaster signify?People have to be affected
    A singular or interactive hazard that has a profound impact on local people or places either in terms of loss of life or injuries, property damage or environmental impact
  53. 53What is meant by an environmental event?Weather phenomena that become hazards once they threaten to affect society and/ or the environment adversely
  54. 54What is meant by an environmental hazard?A weather event that is a potential threat to people and the things they value
  55. 55What is the criteria for a disaster?One or more of:
    1. 10 or more people reported dead
    2. 100 or more people reported affected
    3. Declaration of a state of emergency
    4. Calls for international assistance
  56. 56What is the role of Em-dat?A database maintained by WHO since 1988
    It is a useful resource for cataloging events
    Regular themes for location and preparedness of disasters is seen through the data
  57. 57What plays a significant role in disaster occurrence?People's choices...
    If people are in the path of an environmental event, hazards are created
    If people don't prepare/ can't prepare for a hazard, a disaster is potentially created
  58. 58What is risk?A combination of danger and opportunity
    - Risk is defined by scientists and those experiencing it - objective and subjective assessments are needed to complete a risk assessment
    - Magnitude and frequency (hazard characteristics) define components of risk
    - Social characteristics (attitudes to the hazard can amplify or attenuate the risk)
  59. 59What is meant by objective risk?Quantifying risk through numbers
    (Invest time and money and resources for a 1 in 100 year flood or a 1 in 1000 year flood?)
  60. 60What is meant by subjective risk?- Risk assessment and risk management are both dependent on the choices people make
    - How people perceive a risk affects how they act on it - their action in turn affects the risk...
    - Common sense notions of probability can lead to bad ideas on magnitude
  61. 61What is the case study on BSE and how does it relate to ideas of high perceived risk?- BSE and the human variant (vCJD) caused 170 deaths
    - In 1995, the UK exported 77,000 tonnes of beef and veal worldwide in 2000 this dropped to 2,000 (after 1995 announcement of BSE and vCJD)
    - By 2001, EU beef consumption still down 28% on pre-1995 levels
    - In 1980s, cows were given reconstituted lamb. The sheep had been infected and caused the degenerative 'mad cow' disease
    - CJD had a 100% mortality rate
    - Questions over the frequency
  62. 62How does the asbestos case study relate to ideas of low perceived risk?- Over the coming decades, there are to be an expected 30-40,000 asbestos related deaths per year
    - The first health study of asbestos workers found 66% of those employed for more than 20 years suffered asbestosis
    - Not much media coverage and artex considered normal
  63. 63What is key about risk?1. Risk describes the likelihood of us being affected by a hazard
    2. It describes the potential damage that might occur
    3. It has both objective and subjective components
    4. Both objective and subjective risk influence levels of risk
  64. 64What is the example used to show how some risks are considered acceptable?In the US death by terrorism = 18
    death by gun violence = 8,512
    There is more money spent and fear installed in terrorism - gun violence seen as the norm although kills more
    The extent at which individuals accept risk is down to subjectivity
  65. 65What is the PAR model of vulnerability?- It is used to reduce the intensity of disaster
    - Gives recommendations on how to either
    1. Reduce the hazard
    2. Reduce the progression of vulnerability
    It seems there it is easier to reduce progression of vulnerability rather than reducing the hazard directly
  66. 66How does the case study of New Orleans in the Hurricane Katrina disaster show an example of progression of vulnerability?- There is a large, poor community not engaged on wider social preparedness for hazards
    - Poor groups in marginal housing in highly exposed areas
    - Marginal groups are excluded from institutions that deliver early warnings (NHC)
    - They also lack the resources to evacuate
    (It seems history continues to repeat itself that it is the poorest members of society (already the most vulnerable) that always suffer)
  67. 67What are the 3 pillars to sustainable development and how does it correlate to disasters?- Economic growth
    - Environmental protection
    - Social progress
    Lack of sustainability creates a vulnerability context for disasters
  68. 68What was the 1987 Bruntland report?Lifting people out of poverty and develop them in order to be sustainable (without effecting the ecological impacts that could otherwise induce a backward step and make them more vulnerable)
  69. 69What did the Agenda 21 conference recognise?The need for wider participation in decision making (equity and justice)
  70. 70What are examples of human geographical risks?Health risks
    Economic risks
  71. 71What are examples of physical geographical risks?Earthquakes
    Volcanos
    Floods
  72. 72What are the key features of Beck's risk society (1986)?- Influential book (60,000 copies in the first 5 years)
    -Modernisation doesn't lead to utopia, but risks (Science + manufacture = ecological issues and waste)
    - Global economic markets have lead to economic crashes
    - Better food has lead to obesity
  73. 73What is the 3- stage periodisation of society as described by Beck?1. PRE- MODERNITY - pre 1800s/ feudal agrarianism/ everyone working on the land (subsistance farming)
    2. SIMPLE MODERNITY - 1800-1900s/ modernisation destroys traditions and creates wealth/ classical industrial society/ better housing/ accumulation of consumer products
    3. REFLEXIVE MODERNITY - Last 3-4 decades/ modernisation creating risk/ industrial risk society/ still scientific development, but focused on reflection (of risks) and how to manage them
  74. 74Where does the role of politics fit in the risk society?- Politics increasingly focuses on risks as are created by human decisions
    - Politics is increasingly unbound from the political system
    - This results in a new political culture to emerge involving judicary/media/ social movement organisations and decision making is a decentralised collective action
    - Risks associated with migration/ terrorism/ disease
    - Politics and government not to be assumed to be the only one to help reduce risk
    - Independent commissions used and have issues devolved to them
    - Society is more in contact with new technology as the government encourages public declarations of work to minimise unnessecary risks
    - There is also strengthened protectors for whistleblowers to reduce risks
  75. 75How is the action of a new political system found itself limited?- COMPLEX PROBLEMS - requiring the dependence on experts
    - GLOBALISATION - Requiring dependence on international regulatory bodies. Nation states can't address issues on their own
    - DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS - Rights to protest- requiring dependence on citizens (This allows for political participation beyond the political system (sub politics)) Governments can test ideas on member of the public
  76. 76What is the influence of the media on risk society?It will highlight risk and install it on the population
  77. 77What is meant by decentralised collective action?Society comes together to find decisions, but decisions based not just on politics, but all actors (citizens/ experts/ ethical groups) in politics
  78. 78What are Giddens 3 pillars of modernity?1. Science
    2. Capitalism
    3. Nation states
  79. 79What does Giddens say on disembodying mechanisms on modernity?- Every scientific discovery allows for expansions
    - They initiated globalisation (mechanical clock/ insurance)
  80. 80What does Giddens sat on globalisation and modernity?- Leads to anxiety about potential consequences of distant actions and complex interactions
    - This demands risk profiling, risk assessment and risk management (Govs/ groups and individuals will constantly question their actions)
    - Life politics is a form of risk management of lifestyle choices of emancipated people who seek to manage risks personally
  81. 81What has Beck's and Giddens work led to for society?- Political questions of distribution (left and right) have been replaced by technical questions of risk management (New Labour by Blair - a risk assessing technocratic government - no longer relevant to the collecting and distributing of monies, but of risk management - reactive senses of doing and not of 'grand visions')
    - Nation states, political parties/ trade unions are being replaced by sub- politics and life politics
    - Antagonism is being replaced by consensus
  82. 82What are the ideas of Mouffe on the political in the new risk society?* The post-political vision ignores collective identification and its associated exclusions/ passions and antagonisms - it goes against human nature (people like to group together with like minded people) and can't survive
    *If democratic politics doesn't offer stark divisions people will look outside of democratic parties
    * In the meantime, it turns people with grievances off democratic politics (because all parties seem the same and offer policies, not identities) so people tend towards the extremities (links with terrorism)
    *Politics is no longer exciting - settled rather than addressing issues
  83. 83What is vulnerability in terms of resilience?The degree to which a system may react adversely to a negative shock or adverse event
  84. 84What is key to social resilience?Response and recovery - 'bounce back'
  85. 85What is meant by resilience?- Spring back
    - It can be applied to many contexts and increasingly on communities, cities and regions
    - Produce lively debates (becoming increasingly popular) and is even becoming part of policy objectives, where there are documents on how to build resilient cities and societies
  86. 86Why is there a growing interest in resilience?- There is a recognition of increasing and interconnected risks
    - There are many hybrid risks produced by the natural world and economic systems (Global warming and urbanisation in costal areas)
  87. 87How has the global economic system made for growing interest in resilience?The global economy now includes an intensified set of risks. Economics can provide instability (inherent global capitalism)
    - Catastrophes - 2008 global financial crash
    - Accidents - Rapid capitalist expansion without proper regulation and standards
    - Disasters have been having increasing economic losses
    - There have been 400 financial crisis and 5 BIG recessions in last 4 decades (global economy more prone now to shocks - very up/ down)
  88. 88Why is there a call to change from vulnerability to resilience?- There is dissatisfaction with social vulnerability - tending to represent people as victims needing help
    - Resilience seems more positive- how to adapt and respond not be passive
    - Resilience is a bridging concept - it can connect different issues
    - Its a boundary concept that is malleable and can be used in different sites
  89. 89What are the 3 main types of resilience?1. Resilience as a bounce back from shocks
    2. Resilience as the 'ability to absorb' shocks
    3. Resilience as 'adaptability' in preparedness for or response to shocks
  90. 90What is the interpretation of resilience being a 'bounce back' from shocks?- System returns to pre-shock state or path: focusing on 'the speed of recovery' (easy to measure)
    - 'Engineering resilience' used for physical sciences and some versions of ecology, akin to send-restoring equilibrium in mainstream economics
  91. 91What is the interpretation of resilience as the 'ability to absorb' shocks?- The stability of a system structure, function and identity in face of shocks
    (There is a noticed change in the system approaching so preparation is key)
    - ' Extended ecological resilience' - used in ecology and social ecology
  92. 92What is the interpretation of resilience as 'adaptability' in preparedness for or response to shocks?-Capacity to maintain core performances by adapting/ reorienting structure, function and organisation
    (Rather than return to normal, return to something better)
    - Akin to 'robustness' in complex systems theory, also in psychology/ organisation theory
  93. 93What are the key principles of resilient systems?1. FEEDBACKS - between danger signals and enabalation of learning
    2. DIVERSTIY - Diverse resource requirements so failure can be compensated
    3. HIGH FLUX - Resources move fast through a system
    4. FLATNESS - Hierarchal systems less able to cope with surprise
    6. BUFFERING - Resource and capacity in excess of needs (spare capacity to evolve)
    7. REDUNDENCY - Parts perform overlapping functions and redundant elements can take on new functions - localised controls
  94. 94What are the two different uses of resilience?1. Used as a holistic idea to understand a place's response to diverse types of shock/ pressure
    - Community/ city resilience. Social/ ecological resilience - how communities adapt to ecosystem/social/economic change. Incorporates natural resources/ institutions/ economy
    2. Used within a particular field, a specific type of shock - disaster or economic resilience
  95. 95What does Wilson (2012) say of disaster resilience?Created a graph to show different anthropogenic and natural disturbances
    A more general, holistic approach
  96. 96What can determine the extent of social resilience?1. Knowledge and learning - partnerships and 'memory'
    2. Community networks and 'social capital' (civil organisations and groups) - number of social relations you have/ who could support you? (Sharing of information also)
    3. Diverse and innovative economy
    4. Strong infrastructure and public services
    5. Governance and institutions - co-ordinate and collaborate. Localised authorities with local knowledge
  97. 97What are the three processes that add to disaster resilience (or not...)?1. POVERTY AND INCOME - Lower resilience among marginalised groups - lose their physical assets/ sources of income (with no savings, they are unable to borrow to reinvest
    2. SOCIAL CAPITAL - Higher resilience where people share information and labour
    3. DECENTRALISED AUTHORITIES - With local knowledge, participation and trust
  98. 98What is the case study for an example of a disaster with low resilience?HURRICANE MITCH, HONDURAS (1998)
    -14,000 killed, 90% roads damages
    - 15-20 years of recovery thought to wipe out 20 years of economic development
    - Cash crop plantations caused deforestation - people pushed up onto hillsides where they are more vulnerable
    - Slow recovery, high emigration (500,000 to US), high violence (gangs make for little community) and high inequality income and gender
    - Corruption and political instability
  99. 99What is the case study for an example of a disaster with low resilience?PHILIPPINES
    - A high risk zone, but quick recovery
    - Strong social capital - long history of village and community organisations - mutual help and support
    - Trust in the government and community institutions so advice is followed
    - Together experience much hardship, don't migrate
    - Shows vulnerability doesn't necessarily mean low resilience
  100. 100What are the criticisms for resilience being seen as a 'return to normal'?- It ignores dysfunctional resilience
    - It's not enough as some places suffer a cycle of shock/ recovery/ crisis
    - Recent work on making it more 'bounce forward' than 'bounce back' - we need to understand processes of adaption and change to build these
  101. 101What are the criticisms of the use of resilience in socio- economic settings?1. Problem of being too closely associated with ecology - spatial socio-economic systems differ from physical and ecological systems
    - General principles of resilience may overlook importance of human learning and knowledge, politics and power
    2. Problem of holism - down playing differernces within places and between groups
    3. Neoliberal connotations - emphasising 'flexibility', 'self- resilience' and communities urged to look after themselves
  102. 102How are hazards monitored?1. Satellites - 100 - 200 miles away. See large areas. Can do it at lower resolutions - orbital features leave gaps
    2. Ground sensors are of higher resolution, but see limited area
    3. Tiltmeters - rlrctronic spirit levels
    4. Direct observations (very dangerous). Gases collected by hand
  103. 103What types of hazards are there?- Floods - river and costal
    - Coastal attack (beyond day- to -day processes). Tsunamis
    - Earthquakes/ landslides
    - Volvanic processes
    - Extreme weather (hurricane/ tornado/ ice/ dust storm
    - Fire
  104. 104What are the hazards for volcanoes?- Pyroclastic flows
    - Lahars/ mud flows
    - Noxious gasses
    - Earthquakes - increasing pressure in volcanos associated with seismicity
    - Eruption plumes
    - Climate impacts
    - Sulphate aerosols
  105. 105What are ground observations for volcanoes?1. SURFACE DEPOSITION - Tiltmeters (changes in slope), GPS
    2. SEISMICITY - Seismographs
    3. GAS EMISSIONS - Collected from vents and fumaroles. A direct measurement or remotely censored from spectrometers to compare and detect gas concentration in the light volcanic plumes
  106. 106How are crater lakes used to determine when a volcano will erupt?- Crater lakes on volcanoes act like calorimeters, absorbing the head giving off by rising magma
    - 12% of the world's 700 or so active volcanoes have crater lakes
  107. 107What is the definition for remote sensing?- 'The study of the Earth and its environment from a distance via edited or reflected electromagnetic energy'
    - The International Space Centre looks at Earth
    - It can be 1. Ground- based 2. Airborne 3. Spaceborne
  108. 108What are the advantages of space borne remote sensing?1. Obtains data over large areas
    2. Provides a time series of consistent data
    3. Aquires data in inaccessible and remote areas
    4. Potential to provide data at a high temporal frequency
    (In astronomy the visible is only a small part of observations - infrared can show atmospheric ash deposits (other radiations))
  109. 109What are the advantages for thermal remote sensing?1. For volcanic monitoring
    - Ash - water contamination/ respiratory hazards/ danger to aircraft
    - Lava + pyroclastic flows - causes fatalities, property destruction, water contamination
    2. For wildfires
    - Respiratory hazard/ cause fatalities/ destroy properties/ contaminates water
  110. 110What is the importance of models for hazards?- For managing and understanding the risks
    - Making predictions to be able to alter and control consequences
  111. 111What does GIS do?- GIS uses different data sets, stacking layers and making a model to show different scenarios for disaster management planning and insurance risk analysis
  112. 112What are the defining characteristics for managing hazards?- Speed of onset (slow - drought/ fast- earthquake)
    - Magnitude (strength and force)
    - Frequency (Return period 1 in 100)
    - Intensity (severity/ impacts and disaster potential scales)
  113. 113What are disaster potential scales?- Project potential damage (to guide preparedness)
    - Make easier comparisons (for public information)
    - Better describe hazards of approaching events (to reduce fear of the unknown)
  114. 114What is the Saffir - Simpson scale?- Scale for storms (sustained wind pressure) and gives indication of minimum pressures and storm surge potentials
    - Gives people the understanding of what to expect and allow for preparedness
  115. 115What is the disaster risk reduction strategy?- Made from the 1994 Yokohama strategy (a world conference on disaster reduction)
    - 4 elements to reduce disaster
    - Circle of disaster risk reduction
    1. Mitigation
    2. Preparedness
    (HAZARD IMPCT)
    3. Response
    4. Recovery
  116. 116What is mitigation in terms of the disaster response model?Aim is to eliminate or reduce the probability of a disaster or to reduce the effects of unavoidable disasters
    Think about what happened and what can be done in the future
    E.g. = Active public education/ implement tax incentives and re- allocation of resources
  117. 117Why is disaster risk reductions in Cuba special?-There are many hurricanes in the Caribbean basin (season between June- December)
    - Cuba recognised as exceptional at evacuation and health management
    - LEDC socialist nation
    - 1966 onwards theres been governmental interventions for mitigating hurricanes
  118. 118What forms of long term mitigation are there?STRUCTURAL MEASURES - Engineering technologies to make infrastructure more robust to hazards (Thames Barrier most expensive of its time)
    NON - STRUCTURAL MEASURES - Land use planning and regulation and information dissemination and economic incentives to reduce deliberate or accidental exposure
    RISK SPREADING MEASURES - Economic measures to encourage higher long term preparedness (loss insurance)
  119. 119What are the aims of the preparedness of the disaster risk reduction strategy?- Activities taken prior to disaster to save lives, minimise disaster damage and enhance response operations
    (E.g. Public health England heat wave plan/ emergency plans in Cuba before hurricane season/ can come down to household level in kits as basic items needed in emergency situations - 'preppers'/ Tornado warning sirens in Texas)
  120. 120What are the aims of the respond of the disaster risk reduction strategy?- Activities immediately before, during and following a disaster to provide emergency assistance for casualties, reduce probability of secondary damage and speed of recovery operations
    (Evacuations in Cuba - all vehicles can be commandeered to evacuate people from their homes)
  121. 121What are the aims of the recovery of the disaster risk reduction strategy?- Activities following disaster which continues until all systems return to normal or better
    (UK home office guidance - rebuild community/ manage financial implications/ resources/ respond to community welfare needs)
  122. 122What is the Hyogo framework?- Idea that local knowledge should be prioritised for mitigation and responses
    1. Ensure disaster risk reduction is a national and local priority
    2. Identify and asses and monitor disaster risks, enhancing early warnings
    3. Use knowledge, innovation and eduction to build cultures of resilience
    4. Reduce underlying risk factors
    5. Strengthen disaster preparedness
  123. 123What is medical geography based on?The concept of disease
  124. 124How are places related to disease diffusion?- Vectors - climate = reproduction of mosquitos
    - Structural factors = built environment = pooling water = mosquito behaviour
    - Co- occurrence of particular diseases
    - Concentrations of doctors/ hospitals
    (Place a 'container' of disease - either pathogen induced (Malaria/ HIV) or chronic (Obesity))
  125. 125How is risk measured medically?Places can be defined as more or less risky (positivist approaches)
  126. 126What is health geography thought of in broader terms?- How place influences health (not just illness)
    - How characteristics of indivdiuals/ populations interact
    - The social dimensions of health (age/ sex/ ethno- racial background/ location/ environment)
  127. 127What are the 3 key themes to health geography?1. PLACES MATTER
    A variety of factors convene within place; different groups of people experience health differently
    2. SOCIAL THEORY IS RELEVANT
    People aren't just 'cases' to be counted, but actors who are influenced by social and political factors. They can chose certain health behaviours or be constrained to others. Inequalities happen for political/ historical reasons
    3. CRITICAL
    Imperative to explain and change what is wrong, not just describe it
  128. 128What three components are there to consider for health?1. Physical
    2. Mental
    3. Spiritual
    WELLBEING
  129. 129What can differ health through different people?- Individuals don't experience health in the same way
    - Social determinants of health
    - Broader experiences health in the same way
    - Wealth/ environment/ age and variables on social determinants of health
  130. 130What is meant by governmentality?- How governments promote certain actions of the individual
  131. 131What is the background of the dispersal of HIV?- First case in 1980/81
    - Not studied until the 1990s
    - Tracking where people move in California (gay men). Many were already infected when the moved away
    - Questions to whether gay men are still a public health risk
  132. 132What is the background for HIV in Nova Scotia?- 1mn people in Halifax, 100,000 people with HIV
    - Economy based on natural resources - fishing/ lumbering
    - Most people catholic/ baptist
    - Less than 1 in 1000 have HIV (low risk, but more likely for males)
    - Individual experiences lead to onward expirences of possibly being influenced
  133. 133What is Nova Scotia's take on sexual health?- Not a sex- positive place
    - Lots of resistance and fear
    - Gay sex really becomes challenging
    - 'Lets not talk about it, because its not a problem here' scenario
    - It is taboo, so people less exposed to what the risks are
    - Low self esteem can lead to people taking higher risks
    - 2006 'safe sex' book for secondary education, rejected (or banned) by schools
  134. 134What is the issue with mobility and the self- care of encountering a risk?- People will move after uni (to Toronto/ larger met area), taking all opportunities without thinking of the risks
    - Less social pressure of everyone knowing your business
  135. 135What is the issue regarding anonymity and fear for HIV in Nova Scotia?- People are worried about the associations when talking to other people (people who know you, who know....)
    - To learn the status - fear for the response
    - Many people will be rejected from social standings for even knowing people who work in HIV
  136. 136What are the issues regarding uneven infrastructure for Nova Scotia compared to the rest of Canada?- Vancouver - posters for HIV in the subway
    - Policy makers don't perceive there to be a need in supporting testing etc.
    - Nova Scotia doesn't have any rapid HIV testing and any testing has to be done in Halifax (can be 5-6 hours away) - lots won't get tested
  137. 137What happens in Nova Scotia regarding rapid testing?- 70% of respondents said they'd pay $20 for a rapid test (high desirability and alternative provincial rollout)
    - The site itself can be an important source of HIV/ AIDS information exchange
    - 84% indicated knowing more about HIV after their test
  138. 138What is meant by Nova Scotia's risk ecology?What is meant by Nova Scotia's risk ecology?
  139. 139What are the growing vulnerabilities for Nova Scotia as a 'small province powder keg'?- Structural/ environmental issues different from 'MTV' cities
    - Signals need to increase supports for overall well-being of gay men as a means STI/ HIV prevention
    - 'High' and 'Low' prevalence places don't exist in vacuums
    - Avalibility/ mobility of sexual relationships + risk behaviours increasing universally; but structural differences in services/ education
  140. 140What is the issue with cold climates?- Cold is stressful for humans
    - Windchill factors are a big hazard
    (Very cold can be -25' normally, but with a 32 mph wind 0'C)
  141. 141What is meant by periglacial landscapes?- Those around glacial ice
    - Valley sides above a glacier or vast areas of Siberia/ Canada that are v.v cold
    - Ice on the ground rather than glacial ice
  142. 142What is special about ice?- H2O can exist in various states
    - It is hard as a solid
    - Under stress, ice can move and become elastic
    - Acts as a super glue and bonds material
    - When melted, it is weak and a mobile fluid
    - When water changes to ice it can increase it's volume by 9%
  143. 143What is permafrost?- A physical state
    - Ground that has been frozen for more than two consecutive winters (top layers thaw in the summer and create hazards)
    - In three layers
    1. The active layer (top)
    2. Permafrost
    3. Talik (unfrozen part - could be due to excess water)
  144. 144Where are the main permafrost areas of the world?- 80% Alaska
    - 40% Canada
    - 20% China
    Warmer lattitudes have fully permafrost landscapes
  145. 145What is the limit for permafrost?1.5 km depth of permanently frozen land (otherwise there is geothermal heating influences)
  146. 146What are considered permafrost hazards?- Snow
    - Ice jams
    - Ice roads
    - Blizzards
    As areas become more populous, the dangers increase
    - Lower slopes have risk of landslide/ rockslide hazards
  147. 147What factors enhance the potential for hazardous permafrost?- Irregular permafrost distribution
    - High permafrost temperature (0'c - -3'C) (freezing/ thawing)
    - High ice ground- ice content
    - Thick, moist active layer (more potential for movement)
    - Steep slopes
  148. 148What factors enhance the human risk to permafrost hazardousness?- High population density
    - Valuable infrastructure located on the permafrost
    - Inadequate engineering regulaiton
  149. 149What are the two main hazards for highland periglacial/ permafrost areas?1. SNOW AVALANCHES - Most common alpine, cold - climate hazard
    2. PERMAFROST
  150. 150What are avalanches classified according to?1. Triggering mechanisms
    2. Type of rupture
    3. Position of sliding surface
    4. Humidity
  151. 151What is the speed of an avalanche?- Hard to measure
    - Related to amount of vertical fall and wetness of snow
    (100 -200m (20-35m/s dry or 10-20 m/s wet))
    (500 - 1000m (55-70 m/s dry or 20 - 35m/s wet))
    Wet snow is heavier, so doesn't go as far/ fast
    There are slopes too sloped for an avalanche
    Winds can also distribute the snow unevenly
  152. 152What are the main types of avalanche?1. Loose snow
    2. Slab - avalanche
    Dangerous because of velocity and shortness of time - hazards include burial and structural damage
  153. 153What are the main controls of snow avalanches?1. METEROLOGY - how much snow/ where it accumalates/ where it falls
    - What happens after the fall by changing temperature and moisture that can affect snow pack ability (metamorphism)
    - Particular weather patterns are linked to increased avalanche activity (Cyclonic storms for the NW)
    2. TERRAIN - Slope angle 15' to 60' (peak 25' to 40')
    - Aspect (how close to direct solar impact) and roughness (trees) also
  154. 154What are the impact pressure for different damage potentials for avalanches?1 kPa- Breaks windows
    30 kPa - Destroys wood- framed structures
    1000 kPa- Moves reinforced concrete structures
  155. 155What is the mean annual deaths for avalanches?150
    This is variable and increasing due to off- piste activities and snow mobiles
    Most die from asphyxiation rather than trauma
    (This January the worst for ages)
  156. 156What are the causes of avalanches?90% from humans
  157. 157What are lowland periglacial permafrost hazards?- Relatively homogenous, low relief, so dominated bu subsidence and heave
    - Threats to infrastructure rather than human life directly
  158. 158What are the factors that influence permafrost activity?- Low altitude, therefore relatively warm (-3 to -5'C)
    - Frequently on large floodplains, therefore highly frost susceptible and prone to segregation ice
    - Areas of relatively high population and therefore prone to human and vegetative disturbances
  159. 159Why is lowland permafrost particularly susceptible to h thermokarst?- It is relatively warm
    - Frost susceptible (floodplain deposits)
    - Most populated and directly affected by human activity
    - 8mn people live in the Arctic with some urbanisation
    - When ice rich permafrost melts, there is a loss of volume (30% increase in volume if water moves to ice and freezes) - loss= subsidence
    - Gorund stability decreases even with partial melt and permafrost warming
    - Hazardous impacts on water supplies/ fishing/ infrastructure and resource systems
    - Ice jams can melt very suddenly
  160. 160What are mitigation management techniques for the lowland periglacial hazards?- Hazard mapping
    - Geotechnical engineering
    - Thermosyphons - Extract heat out of the ground, keeping permafrost solid
    - Piling (buildings built on stilts (cold air between the building and ground)
    - Insulation (gravel as doesn't hold any moisture)
  161. 161What makes volcanic hazards a tough situation for risk management?They are infrequent and unpredictable in most situations
  162. 162What did the L'Aquila earthquake show is a major problem for people involved with predicting hazards?- The media gave a false sense of security
    - 6 scientists and an ex-government official were imprisoned
    - Failing to carry out their legally binding duties as 'public officials'
    - All but one of the convictions were quashed by appeal
  163. 163What was special about the Montserrat volcano?- Antilles subduction zone and volcanic arc in the Eastern Caribbean
    - Soufriere Hills volcano (Active, but eruptions between 19thC until late 20th
    - July 1995 eruptions start (Pyroclastic flows) - 1997, 19 people die
    - There is dual legislation between Montserrat/ Britain. The volcano observatory run by the British Geological Society
    - Had to be careful about how they were wording things
  164. 164What does Haynes et al. (2008) say about the issues with the responses for volcanism?1. Politicians will avoid association with unpopular decisions
    2. Volcanology is an inherently uncertain branch of science
    3. There is differences in opinion for the the crucial point of what level of risk is acceptable for residents
    4. Local residents will gradually build resistance to precautionary actions
    5. Unprivileged local people may defy exclusion zones in order to continue with livelihoods (1997 Montserrat deaths caused by this)
  165. 165What are the components for hazard management?1. Management decisions
    2. Official risk decisions
    3. Target audience will then accept risk or have belief in the competing information
    4. This develops attitude and behaviour
    Throughout all of this there are many feedbacks
  166. 166What is the key points for preparation of the Mt. St. Helens case study?- Located in the Ring of Fire, Pacific coast
    - 1980 was the first major eruption in the USA in the era of modern science
    - Most intensively studied eruption ever
    - Bulge was highly unusual (Previous Russian volcano was similar, but wouldn't say what had happened - upwards/ sideways eruption)
    - Lack of knowledge/ experience and underestimated level of public risk meant 57 killed
    - Experts worrier government wouldn't take control
    - Forest service created an exclusion zone
  167. 167What happened on the 18th of May at Mount St. Helens?- Earthquakes and tremors several months preceding
    - Metting in March led by the Forest Service developed a coordinated plan
    - Resources, communications, protocols used for dealing with forest fires were put in place (planes/ roadblocks/ 24 - hour communications/ radio and TV briefings)
    - Sideways blast zone, pyroclastic flow from shallow intrusion of magma into the cone
    - Avalanche and lahars/ mudslides fast moving downstream
  168. 168What was the issues regarding the publics fear factor for Mount St. Helens?- Tourists had said they wanted to see it erupt, poor risk judgement and lack of information
    - Local people wanted it to stop so they could get on with their lives (Loggers wanted to keep operations going on N side of the mountain)
    - Logging roads made it hard to stop illegal access and funding soon dried up
    - May 16th = many loggers in the area.
    - May 17th = 500 given access (by authorities) to check properties
    - May 18th = eruption
  169. 169What were the lessons learnt from the Mount St. Helens volcano?- Cascades Volcano Observatory now named after David Johnstone and set to permanently watch volcanoes
    - Lead agency is designated for emergencies
    - Have a clear federal emergency plan (working the same in any state)
    - Learning from eruptions and developing a contingency plan
    - Err on the side of caution
  170. 170What is the Issue for the aviation industry regarding ash clouds?- KLM flight lost power in all engines, coming out of the cloud it then worked again
    - Sand blasted by tephra shards
    - Engine oil/ hydraulic fluid and portable water supply contaminated by ash
    - $80 mn dollars to repair the aircraft
    - Ash casuses erosion od the loading edge
    - Thermal coating becomes blistered, it plugs cooling holes and there is a build up of ash inside passages
  171. 171Where is Mount Redoubt?- Anchorage, Alaska
    - The Alaskan volcano observatory (set up 1988 after volcanoes recognised a danger to the growing population) observes 50 out of the 130 active volcanoes and volcanic fields which have been active within the last two million years
  172. 172What did the 1998 hazard assessment report for Redoubt say?- Lessons were learnt from St. Helens and the 1989 ash cloud incident
    - Report anticipates the outcomes for another eruptions based on previous geological deposits/ past live observations of the volcano
  173. 173What is the technological hazard issue with the Mount Redoubt eruption?- Cook inlet in the Northern end of the Gulf of Alaska is an oilfield it is located at the base of the volcano
    - In 2009, tankers were unloading at the Drift River Oil Terminal, connected by pipelines with the oil rigs. Takes oil to refineries located on the other side of the inlet or elsewhere
    - In 1990, a lahar reached the terminal and deposited 1m of mud. It generated a flood 100x larger than the 100 year flood event. Dykes and levees reinforced to meet this level of threat
    - A worse case scenario was set up - outwards not just upwards (after St. Helens)
  174. 174What happened in 2009 for the Mt. Redoubt eruption regarding decisions that had to be made?- 'Burps' in 2008
    - Eruption comprised of long periods of differing activity levels
    - Late March/ early April was the greatest disruption
    - Large scale air transport disruption
    - Decision had to be made about the oil terminal (6mn gallons to be moved? - get oil out rather than have a bad public image)
    - Alaskan government worried the company wouldn't come back if it did move out ($$$)
  175. 175What decisions were taken for the 2009 Mt. Redoubt eruption?- The worst case scenario report showed that a oil- spill disaster could occur
    - Removing posed dangers to tankes, but the chief geologist on the site was given the decision by Palin
    - Made the decision to start moving everything out, eruption occurred and fortunately only was a few metres off the top
  176. 176Why are volcanos considered a hazard?* There are 500 active volcanos worldwide
    * 50 have erupted in the last year
    * 2 volcanic events (Mont Pelee and Nevado del Ruiz) have caused 50% of all volcanic deaths in the 20thC
  177. 177What happens at plate boundaries (Convergence and divergence)- Divergence are the plates coming apart
    - Convergence is coming together
  178. 178What are hotspots?- Volcanic regions thought to be fed by underlying magma off of the plate boundary
    - They are stable in the mantle and the continents pass over the top of them
  179. 179What are the 3 types of eruption?1. Exhalative (gas)
    2. Effusive (lava)
    3. Explosive (tephra)
    All eruptions will have elements of each - take on prominent characteristic
  180. 180What type of volcanoes are formed from low viscosity lava?SHIELD VOLCANOS
    - Low angled volacanos with high flowing distances
    - In Iceland they are seen as small shields or fissures
    - In Hawaii, they are large shields and can have summit caldera (cone build up and collapse in on themselves)
  181. 181What type of volcanos are formed from intermediate viscosity lava?- Stratovolcanoes, where lava is slightly less fluid
    - Repeated lava/ash depositions (pyroclasts) makes build up and striated
    - Light= ash
    - Dark = lava
  182. 182What type of volcanos are formed from high viscosity lava?- Rhyolitic volcano
    - Magma out of the vent is sticky and solidifies at the vent and causes a plug
    - Massive explosions
  183. 183What hazards do volcanos cause?- Lava
    - Ash, gas
    - Pyroclastic flows
    - Landslides and lahars
  184. 184What is the explosive index?Quantifies explosiveness to show dangers
  185. 185What are lava tunnels?- Solidfies on the outside edge and lava flows on the inside
  186. 186What is basic lava and the subaerial and submarine differences?- Basic, low viscosity and flow over great distances
    SUBAERIAL:
    1. Pahoehoe - Smooth ropy surface
    2. Aa-Jagged and sharp + angular surface that cools quickly
    SUBMARINE:
    1. Pillow lava
  187. 187What was special about the Heimaey eruption?- Fire more dangerous than the lava itself
    - Harbour was at risk
    - Water squirted at it to stop it in its flow
  188. 188What are the different types of pyroclasts (tephra) and gas?1. Ash - <2mm
    2. Lapilli - 2-64 mm
    3. Volcanic bombs - >64mm
    Pyroclasts (fire bombs)
  189. 189What are the hazards of pyroclasts?- Ash fills the air and can cause respiratory issues
    - Roofs may collapse
    - Farm land covered
    - Ash can travel far distances
    - Air travel can shut down
  190. 190What are the characteristics of pyroclastic flows?- Fluidised masses of rock fragments and gases that move rapidly in response to gravity
    - They can form when an eruption column collapses, or as the result of gravitational collapse or explosion on a lava dome or lava flow
    -Pyroclastic flows can move very fast up to 200m/s and 200'C
  191. 191What are the hazards of pyroclastic flows?- Direct impact
    - Bury sites in hot rock debris
    - Melt snow and ice to form lahars
    - Burns vegetation and building
  192. 192What are the characteristics of lahars?- Formed when volcanic processes effect snow and ice
    - Lahars are fast moving debris flow
    - Usually form on stratovolcanoes as these usually erupt explosively and are easily erodible of often have a snow top
  193. 193What are hazards of lahars?- Direct impact
    - Sediment deposition
    - Form a dam, which produces a lake that subsequently flood
  194. 194What are the ways to reduce volcano risk?Monitoring and Mitigation needed for preparation
  195. 195What precursory phenomena can be observed before a volcanic eruption?SEISMIC ACTIVITY - Increase in local earthquake activity and audible rumblings
    GROUND DEFORMATION - Upwelling near volcanic vent and changes in ground slope
    HYDROTHERMAL PHENOMENA - Increased discharge or temperature from hot springs or fumaroles (where gas escapes). Rise in temperature in crater lakes. Melting of snow and ice on the volcano. Withering of vegetation of volcano slopes
    CHEMICAL CHANGES - Changes in chemical composition of gas from vents
  196. 196What types of monitoring are there for volcanoes?- Environment sensor networks have digital data points all over the volcano can watch from a distance/ set up alarms
    - IoT systems sent to the internet (hard as some places are remote and have no signal)
    - Monitoring boundries (rather than the hazard) in worldwide systems
  197. 197What volcanic monitoring techniques are there in America and on Mount Pinatubu?- N. America - Seismic stations every 40km2 *Sends data back to a central hub
    *America is one country, so easier to do
    - Acoustic-flow monitor, seismometer sensitive to high frequency ground vibrations on Mt. Pinatubu
    - Hazard mapping and evacuation plans
  198. 198—

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Flashcards on Geog 1011, created by Pippa Holman on 28/01/2016.
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