Unit 3 test

1. 8.1 Physical Growth
   1. *Growth slows and is more stable during preschool years. *Loss of fat and changing proportions. *Cartilage turns to bone. *Usually have all 20 primary teeth by the age of 3 years.

      Annotations:

      • Pre-school kids grow steadily, about 5-8 centimetres and 1.8 kilograms each year.  Adult proportions and less fat.  By age 3, all 20 teeth. 
   2. Brain Development 80% of mature brain weight by age 3 90% of mature brain weight by age 5

      Annotations:

      • •Rapid growth of the brain.  •Brain becomes more specialized (less plasticity)  –Left hemisphere for language-related skills  –Right hemisphere for understanding emotions and spatial relations Preschool years are a time of rapid growth for the brain.  Synaptic pruning continues. Shedding of unused synaptic  Myelinization continues, particularly of the corpus callosum and sensory and motor regions ofthe brain.Brain becomes more specialized.80% of mature brain weight by age 3 90% of mature brain weight by age 5       
   3. Sleep

      Annotations:

      •   •Amount of sleep decreases  -giving up naps around 4 years.  •Bedtime struggles occur nightly (consistent bedtime routine recommended)   • Some children have sleep disturbances   -nightmares   -night terrors   -sleep walking    -bedwetting (boys more so than girls)    
2. 8.2 Motor Development

   Annotations:

   • •       Big improvements in running and hopping  –      2 yr old have a hurried walk; by 5 or 6 yrs are airborne!  –      2 – 3 yrs can hop a few times on one foot; by 5 or 6 yrs hop long distances and alternate feet  •       Improved ability to catch and throw a ball.  •       Advanced motor skills lead to unstructured play.     
   1. Fine Motor Skills

      Annotations:

      •  •  Improved dexterity- able to make many precise and delicate movements with their hands and fingers  • Greater fine motor skill- coordination leads to improvements in preschool children’s printing. Feeding & Dressing  •  Better grip of writing implements-improves preschoolers drawings  •  Progression in drawing ability reflects more than improvements in fine-motor skill; it also reflects cognitive growth that allows children to understand more of what they see about them.       
      1. Handedness

         Annotations:

         •  •  By 2 years clear hand preference  • 90% are right-handed  • Left-handed  - migraines, allergies and language problems.  • Lefties:  artistically and spatially talented; good at math     
      2. Gender Differences

         Annotations:

         • • Boys more muscular and more active. •  Boys better at running and throwing (strength). • Girls better at balancing, hopping, skipping, and fine motor activities (coordination).  Social encouragement and gender-stereotyped activities    
3. 8.3 Health and Wellness
   1. Nutrition

      Annotations:

      • • Preschoolers need to eat less per kilogram than infants and toddlers because they grow more slowly than infants. 90 calories per kilogram body fat. 1500-1700 calories a day • Some preschoolers become picky eaters. Parents should not be overly concerned when their preschool children become picky eaters  • Parents should encourage a well-balanced diet. A healthy diet not only draws upon all major food groups, but it also limits sugar and fat  • Canada’s Food Guide     
      1. Childhood Obesity

         Annotations:

         • •  Obesity rates in Canadian children  -Poor eating and low levels of exercise  -Increased risk of social & emotional problems   -Genetic factors an environmental  Factors can interact affecting two conditions that have been increasingly escalating: obesity and asthma  -Geography (regional differences) -Social class     
      2. Good Eating Habits

         Annotations:

         • • Offer choices from among healthy foods • Allow them to eat foods in any order they want  New foods one at a time & small amounts • Don’t force to eat new foods • Don’t force to clean their plates •  Don’t talk about eating/not eating at mealtime  • Never use food as reward or punishment!     
   2. Development threats

      Annotations:

      • • Minor illnesses common (builds immunity and learning how their bodies work). On average preschool children have 7-8 colds per year.  • Chronic illness, except asthma, is not common. Juvenile diabetes or cancer. Children must contend with their illnesses on a daily basis rather than getting over it like the flu.  • Accidents are the leading cause of death in preschool children (auto; drowning; fire; farm-related accidents)  • Environmental Contributions to Illness and Injury- not all children are prone to illness and injury why? Stress is one factor  • Stress and poverty lead to injury and illness.     
      1. Hospitalization

         Annotations:

         • Children with asthma and other chronic illnesses must be hospitalized to receive the care they need.  “Child-first” approach to service delivery.     
4. Conclusions

   Annotations:

   •  •Growth during the preschool years is not as rapid as during the infant and toddler years.  •Health Canada’s guidelines for children nutrition should be followed.  • Brain becomes more specialized but at a price of plasticity.  •  Motor skills improve as a result of brain development.  • Sleep is an important element in children’s growth. • A bedtime routine facilitates a pleasant bedtime. • Gender differences in motor skills might be due more to socialization than biological male-female differences.     

1. Improvements in reasoning and problem solving abilities (speed of processing and retention improve) •During the preschool years, children become better at regulating their attention *Attention: the process by which information in selected to be processed further
2. 9.1 Cognitive Processes
   1. Piaget’s Account

      Annotations:

      • • Preschoolers are in Piaget’s preoperational stage.  • Children can use symbols but there are many weaknesses in their thinking: egocentrism, animism, centration, and appearance as reality.  • Preoperationalstage: in Piaget theory, the stage of cognitive development during whichchildren use symbols to represent objects and events.     
      1. Terms

         Annotations:

         • -Egocentrism: seeing the word primarily from the perspective of self, rather than of other people. -Animism: crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties.-Centration: in Piagetian theory, the term fornarrowly focused thought, typically during the preoperational stage. Child focuses on one aspect of a problem or situation but ignores other relevant aspects.  Theory of mind: a person’s understanding of the relations between mind and behaviour. During the preschool years, children form a theory of mind—a naive understanding of connections between thoughts, beliefs, and behaviour. Executive functioning: a set of cognitive abilities that enable intentional, self-regulated behaviour. Counterfactual thinking: understanding that a situation or fact is opposite to reality. 
   2. Memory: Information selection and processing

      Annotations:

      • • Autobiographical memory originates in the preschool years. Memory of significant events and experiences in their own lives  • Construct a personal life history  • Parents ask who, what, where, when, and why
   3. Counting

      Annotations:

      • •Preschoolers’ counting follows 3 basic principles. • Begin to count by age 2 • Make mistakes! • By age 4 most know the numbers to 20, and some can count to 99  • Learning to count is more difficult in English than in other languages     
      1. 1. One-to-one principle

         Annotations:

         • •There must be one and only one number name for each object that is counted. A child who counts three objects as “1, 2, a” understands this principle because the number of number words matches the number of objects to be counted.     
      2. 2. Stable-order principle

         Annotations:

         • Number names must be counted in the same order. A child who counts in the same sequence—for example, consistently counting four objects as “1, 2, 4, 5”—shows understanding of this principle.    
      3. 3. Cardinality principle

         Annotations:

         • The last number name differs from the previous ones in a counting sequence by denoting the number of objects in a set. Typically, 3-year-olds reveal their understanding of this principle by repeating the last number name, often with emphasis: “1, 2, 4, 8 . . . EIGHT!”    
   4. Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

      Annotations:

      • Cultural context – children develop through social relationships (not just as individual explorers of the world); Apprenticeship between novice and expert     
      1. Zone of proximal development

         Annotations:

         • •the difference between what a child can do without the support of a more experience caregiver and what the child can do with that support.     
      2. Scaffolding

         Annotations:

         •  a teaching style that matches the amount of assistance to the learner’s needs.     
      3. Private speech

         Annotations:

         • comments not directed to others but that help children regulate their own behaviour.    
      4. Inner speech (thought)
3. 9.2 Language
   1. Encouraging Word Learning

      Annotations:

      • •Talk more, but with not at children. •Name and label objects •Read books; describe pictures as you read •Asking children questions while reading is more beneficial •Participation helps children to understand the meaning of new words     
   2. From two-word speech to complex sentences

      Annotations:

      • •Speech is often telegraphic in 1-year-olds (2 words) •Vocabulary of a few hundred words by age 2 •Gradually by 2-years of age use three words or more and add grammatical morphemes (ie.“ing”) •Rule-based so errors of overregularization occur (“mans” instead of “men”; “goed”  nstead of “went”; “runned” instead of “ran”). •By age 5 – several thousands words; sentences of 5 words or more     
      1. Telegraphic speech

         Annotations:

         • talk consisting only of words directly relevant to meaning, such as important verbs and nouns    
      2. Grammatical morphemes
      3. Overregularization

         Annotations:

         • applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule. As children move beyond two-word speech, they begin to master questions, negation, and other more complex sentence forms.     
   3. How Children Acquire Grammar

      Annotations:

      • •Learning theory – imitation and reinforcement? •Then why can’t nonhumans learn grammar?   •Inborn mechanisms help children learn grammar •Language input is important but more than just imitation because children’s speech has its own grammar. •Neural circuits in the brain allow children to infer grammar of the language they hear. •Semantic bootstrapping hypothesis: children rely upon word meaning to discover grammatical rules.  •Some researchers believe that built-in neural circuits help children infer the grammar of their native language; other researchers believe children use cognitive skills to find regular patterns in the speech they hear.     
   4. Inborn Mechanisms

      Annotations:

      • • Specific regions of the brain for language. •Only humans learn grammar readily.• A critical period for learning language exists (birth to age 12).•Specificregions of the brain are known to be involved in language processing.    

Annotations:

• Social and Emotional Development in Preschool Children Self     

1. 10.1 Self
   1. Expanding Concept of Self

      Annotations:

      • •Physical Characteristics  (I have blue eyes)•Preferences (I like spaghetti)•Competencies (I can count to fifty) Includes self-identification as a boy or a girl, and learning behaviours associated with each role     
   2. Gender Roles

      Annotations:

      • Gender stereotyping of activities familiar to the child occurs in girls as in young as 24 months, and in boys by 31 months. Preschoolers view stereotypes as binding for all boys and girls. **the culturally prescribed roles considered appropriate for males and females.     
      1. Social Role

         Annotations:

         • a set of cultural guidelines for how a person should behave.    
      2. Gender stereotypes

         Annotations:

         • beliefs about how males and females differ in personality traits, interests, and behaviours.     
      3. Instrumental traits

         Annotations:

         • personality characteristics that reflect active involvement with and influence over the environment, and that are stereotypically associated with men.     
      4. Expressive traits

         Annotations:

         • personality characteristics that reflect emotional functioning and a focus on interpersonal relations, and that are stereotypically associated With women. •Men are seen as instrumental – act on and influence the environment •Women are seen as expressive –  reflect emotional functioning and a focus on interpersonal relationships     
      5. Gender Identity

         Annotations:

         • •the perception of self as either male or female Influences on gender-related behaviour:•Parents (particularly dads – respond based on gender stereotypes; moms on individual child’s needs) •Peers (critical of cross-gender play, particularly of boys; prefer same-sex playmates – enabling vs. constricting interaction)•Media (more impact on children than adults)•Parents (particularly dads), peers, and media reinforce gender-related behavior.•Gender identity develops gradually: gender labelling, stability, consistency, and constancy.•Some evidence for genetic and hormonal influences. •Enabling: interactions that tend to support others and sustain the interaction.•Constricting: interactions that result in one partner threatening, contradicting, or dominating the other.     
   3. Self-Esteem

      Annotations:

      • •At its peak in the preschool years. •Achieve a sense of purpose. •Positive views of self – full of self-confidence and eager to take on new tasks. •Preschoolers must achieve a sense of purpose (balance between individual initiative and cooperation). •Preschoolers have positive views of self across many different domains.     
2. 10.2 Relationships with Parents
   1. The family as a system

      Annotations:

      • •Parents influence children directly and indirectly. •Parents influence each other. •Parents are influenced by outside forces (e.g., work).     
      1. Parenting Behaviour Dimensions and Styles
         1. Dimensions
            1. Warmth

               Annotations:

               • •Involved – children are secure and better behaved •Uninvolved/hostile – children are anxious and have behaviour challenges     
            2. Control

               Annotations:

               • •Controlling/demanding – run children’s lives  • Permissive – make few demands; rarely exert control     
         2. Parenting Styles

            Annotations:

            • •Authoritarian – high control; little warmth •Authoritative – reasonable control; lots of warmth  •Indulgent-permissive – warmth; little control  •Indifferent-uninvolved – neither warmth or control     
            1. Authoritarian parenting

               Annotations:

               • high control with low levels of warmth    
               1. low self-esteem; poor social skills
            2. Authoritative parenting

               Annotations:

               • reasonable control with lots of warmth and responsiveness to children.     
               1. responsible, self-reliant, friendly
            3. Indifferent-uninvolved parenting

               Annotations:

               • uninterested, uninvolved parenting     
               1. low self-esteem; impulsive, aggressive, moody
            4. Indulgent-permissive parenting

               Annotations:

               • lots of warmth and caring but little control    
               1. impulsive; easily frustrated
         3. Parental behaviour

            Annotations:

            • includes direct instruction, observing and feedback. Direct instruction: telling children what to do, when, and why.Observing: children learn from watching others, including parents and their treatment of siblings. Feedback: reinforcement useful but parents often unknowingly reinforce behaviours they want to prevent.     
            1. Parenting Behaviour (Behaviour Techniques)
               1. Direct instruction

                  Annotations:

                  • telling children what to do -coachin  -modeling     
               2. Learning by Observing (imitation)

                  Annotations:

                  • counterimitation:  learning (by observing others) what should not be done -disinhibiting: increase in behaviour observed, particularly aggression -inhibition:  decrease in one or more behaviours observed    
            2. Feedback

               Annotations:

               • •Reinforcement: any action that increases the likelihood of the response that it follows. •Punishment: any action that decreases the likelihood of the response that it follows. •Negative reinforcement trap: reinforcing the very behaviours that are being targeted for elimination.  •Timeout:  sit alone/excluded from activity  •Time away:  being diverted to another, quieter activity     
               1. Children’s Contributions

                  Annotations:

                  • •Parenting influenced by children’s behaviour. •Defiance encourages authoritarian parenting. •Parenting varies with characteristics of children.•Parents should discuss expectations for appropriate behaviour with their preschoolers.•Parenting is often influenced by children’s behaviour.•Defiance encourages authoritarian parenting.•Parenting varies depending upon individual characteristics of children.•Parents’ behaviour and styles often evolve over time as a consequence of their children’s behaviour.     
      2. Family Configuration
         1. Role of grandparents

            Annotations:

            •  formal, fun-seeking, distant, dispensing-family-wisdom, and surrogate-parent. •Formal grandparents express strong interest in the grandchild but maintain a hands-off attitude toward child-rearing.  **Fun-seeking grandparents see themselves as a primary source of fun for their grandchildren but avoid more serious interactions. •Distant grandparents have little contact with grandchildren, except as part of holidays or other family celebrations.  *-Dispensing-family-wisdom grandparents provide information and advice to parents and grandchildren alike. •Surrogate-parent grandparents assume many of the normal roles and responsibilities of a parent.    •Children of gay and lesbian parents resemble children of heterosexual parents (qualityof relationships is what matters in parenting)    
            1. Multiple adults are important in the lives of children, but who the adults are seems to matter less than how they care for the children.
3. 10.3Relationships with Siblings and Peers
   1. Sibling Relationships

      Annotations:

      • •Firstborns and only children  -more adult- and achievement-oriented  •Laterborns   -more innovative and popular with their peers. •Pattern of sibling interaction is established early and remains fairly stableMany factors that influence how siblings get alongGender and temperament•Age •Parents When siblings fight, especially young children, parents should intervene     
   2. Peer Relationships and Preschooler’s Play

      Annotations:

      • •Cooperative Play with same gender  •Offer comfort to those distressed •Bullying - by end of preschool age  •Make-believe play - promotes cognitive development•Solitary play (not wandering aimlessly or hovering)•Parents’ role in play include playmate, mediator, and coach.  Secure attachment matters too!     
   3. Moral Development: Learning to control one’s Behaviour

      Annotations:

      • Beginnings of Self-Control  •1 year- others impose demands.  •2 years-internalized some controls.  3 years-devise ways to regulate behaviour         •Self-control during the preschool years predicts later behaviour, personality, and achievement     
   4. PHASES OF SELF-CONTROL
      1. infancy

         Annotations:

         • babies initially learn about self-soothing through parental regulatory activities, such as distracting the infant from an upsetting stimulus    
      2. Phase 1