Immunology

Annotations:

• A single celled organism hat cannot be seen without a microscope

1. Pathogens

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   • Disease causing agents
   1. Bacteria

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      • A prokaryotic organism Bacteria produce divide in two like other cells if they're in the right conditions for the bacteria
   2. Virus

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      • An infective agent that typically consists of a nucleic acid molecule in a protein coat (capsid) and is able to multiply only within the living cells of a host
   3. Fungi

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      • A diverse group of organisms which have (chitin) cell walls and a nucleus being eukaryotic and live by decomposing and absorbing the organic material in which they grow
      1. Chitin

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         • Compound with makes up fungal walls
   4. Protozoa

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      • Single-celled organisms that do not fit any of the other classification groups
   5. Prion

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      • Infectious abnormal proteins defined by their alpha helices and beta pleated sheets
   6. Parasite

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      • Either live on (endoparasites) or on (exoparasites) organisms to gain nutrients 

1. First line of defence
   1. Mucus

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      • A slippery secretion which lines various body canals and forms a protective barrier between invading microorganisms and your cells by trapping microbes and particles
      1. Cilia

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         • Specialised cells with tiny hairs that beat to move mucus up and down the airways
      2. Goblet cells

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         • Cells which line airways and secrete mucus
   2. Natural secretions

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      • Secretions of the body capable of killing bacteria such as tears, saliva, stomach acid (hydrochloric acid), milk and semen
   3. Skin

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      • Acts as a barrier of dead cells to prevent entry of foreign objects. Glands of the skin also secrete fatty acids and salts to prevent bacterial infestations  Skin cells are shed (sloughed off) so that bacteria are removed on a daily basis. As skin cells are dead, viruses cannot inject genetic information into them
   4. Natural flora

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      • Many parts of your body are naturally covered by good bacteria. The bacteria found naturally in places such, as skin, gut, and the vagina, are not harmful. Their role is to outcompete invading bacteria for space and nutrients and thus prevent entry to the body.
   5. Barrier

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      • First line of defence- can be physical or chemical
2. Second line of defence

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   • Non-specific immune response when a pathogen has passed the first line of defence and entered the body
   1. Inflammation

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      • increased blood flow due to vasodilation of blood vessels, in response to a compromised first line of defence, leading to increased warmth and swelling
   2. Vasodialtion

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      • Dialating or widening of blood vessels
   3. Blood clotting

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      • A cascade process resulting in the formation of fibrin meshwork and entrapment of platelets 
      1. Fibrin

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         • The main protein that forms a fibrous mesh in blood clotting. Fibrin (insoluble) forms from fibrinogen (soluble) as the end of the clotting cascade.
      2. Platlets

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         • Tiny cell fragments that are found within our blood which have the primary responsibility of stopping bleeding where there is an injury to the body

1. Secondary immune response

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   • The second exposure to particular antigen which is faster and produces larger concentrations of antibodies due to memory cells
2. Primary immune response

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   • First encounter with antigens from a pathogen. When the body first encounters a foreign antigen, the non-specific phagocytes get to work engulfing them, but a specific immune response is also generated.  There are two types called B-lymphocytes and T-lymphcytes
   1. B-lymphocytes

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      • A type of lymphocytes that produce antibodies which are specific and complementary to the antigen they act on. Also known as B cells From the bone marrow
      1. Memory cells

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         • Formed from the mitotic division of activated B cells- they remain in the body in case of another infection and divide rapidly to form plasma cells when the antigen is encountered 
      2. Plasma cells

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         • Formed from the mitotic division of activated B-cells-they produce specific and complementary antibodies to the antigen that activated the B cells
3. Non-specific immune response

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   • Non-specific immune response is when white blood cells look for pathogens and engulf microbes. However we call this process the non-specific response to infection because it doesn't depend on the type of microbe.
4. Specific immune response

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   • When an antibody has to matcha specific antigen spending on its shape
5. Antigens

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   • Specific surface markers on pathogens that can be recognised by white blood cells.
6. Antibodies

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   • Y-shaped proteins produced by lymphocytes that are specific and complementary to antigens on pathogens based on shape

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• The ability to deal with a pathogen before it makes you ill. Immunity may exist naturally or as a result to previous infection

1. Vaccines

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   • Weakened (attenuated) or dead forms of the pathogen or antigens which aim to mimic the primary immune response to produce memory cells so the body can recognise and produce antibodies more quickly when infected by the actual pathogen
   1. Acquired in specie immunity

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      • The resulting immunity from a vaccination 
2. Variolation

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   • The intentional infection of smallpox to develop acquired specie immunity

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• A medicine used to treat bacterial infections

1. Antimicrobial resistance

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   • The ability of microbes to grow in the presence of a chemical (drug) that would normally kill them to limit their growth. Caused by overuse of antibiotics 
2. Penicilin

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   • First antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming
   1. Alexander Fleming

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      • Alexander Fleming studied bacteria. In 1928, Fleming was growing a bacteria called staphylococci; however, his lab was often untidy and left the lids off plates.  After leaving his plates
3. Peptidoglycan

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   • Compound which makes up bacterial cell walls

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• Can defeat the body in 3 ways: -Ingest pathogens and destroy them ~ this is non-specific  -Produce antibodies to destroy particular pathogens ~ specific -Produce antitoxins that contract the toxins released y bacterial pathogens ~specific  

1. Phagocytes

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   • White blood cells that engulf bacteria or infected cells. 
   1. Neutophils
   2. Macrophages
   3. Phagocytosis

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      • Bulk movement of a solid into a cell through the formation of vesicles  eg. neutrophils engulf bacteria
2. Lysosomes

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   • A eukaryotic cell organelle (only found in animal cells) which contain hydrolytic enzymes, and fuse with the phagosomes formed by engulfing pathogens in phagocytes, to destroy the pathogens