Glossary

A Absolute refractory period - The period during which a neuron lies dormant after an action potential has been completed. Absolute threshold - The minimum amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect the stimulus 50 percent of the time. Accommodation - The process by which the shape of an eye’s lens adjusts to focus light from objects nearby or far away. Also: the modification of a schema as new information is incorporated. Acetylcholine - A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, attention, arousal, memory, and emotion. Achievement motive - An impulse to master challenges and reach a high standard of excellence. Achievement tests - An assessment that measures skills and knowledge that people have already learned. Acronym - A word made out of the first letters of several words. Acrostic - A sentence or phrase in which each word begins with a letter that acts as a memory cue. Action potential - A short-lived change in electric charge inside a neuron. Activation-synthesis theory - A theory proposing that neurons in the brain activate randomly during REM sleep. Active listening - A feature of client-centered th erapy that involves empathetic listening, by which the therapist echoes, restates, and clarifies what the client says. Adaptation - An inherited characteristic that increases in a population because it provides a survival or reproductive advantage. Adaptive behaviors - Behaviors that increase reproductive success. Additive strategy - The process of listing the attributes of each element of a decision, weighing them according to importance, adding them up, and determining which one is more appealing based on the result. Adoption studies - Studies in which researchers examine trait similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents to figure out whether that trait might be inherited. Adrenal cortex - The outer part of the adrenal glands, which secretes corticosteroids. Adrenal medulla - The inner part of the adrenal glands, which secretes catecholamines. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - A hormone released by the pituitary gland that stimulates release of corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex. Afferent nerves - Bundles of axons that carry information from muscles and sense organs to the central nervous system. Afterimage - A color we perceive after another color is removed. Age of viability - The point at which a fetus has some chance of surviving outside the mother if born prematurely. Agonists - Chemicals that mimic the action of a particular neurotransmitter. Agoraphobia - A disorder involving anxiety about situations from which escape would be difficult or embarrassing or places where there might be no help if a panic attack occurred. Algorithm - A step-by-step procedure that is guaranteed to solve a problem. All-or-none law - States that neurons fire to generate an action potential only if stimulation reaches a minimum threshold. Alpha waves - Type of brain waves present when a person is very relaxed or meditating. Alternate-forms reliability - The ability of a test to produce the same results when two different versions of it are given to the same group of people. Ambiguous language - Language that can be understood in several ways. Amplitude - The height of a wave. Amygdala - A part of the limbic system of the brain that is involved in regulating aggression and emotions, particularly fear. Animism - The belief that inanimate objects are alive. Anorexia nervosa - A disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a body weight in the normal range, intense fear about gaining weight, and highly distorted body image. Antagonists - Chemicals that block the action of a particular neurotransmitter. Anterograde amnesia - An inability to remember events that occurred after a brain injury or traumatic event. Antisocial personality disorder - A disorder characterized by a lack of conscience and lack of respect for other people’s rights, feelings, and needs, beginning by age fifteen. Appraisal - The process of evaluating an environmental challenge to determine whether resources are available for dealing with it. Approach-approach conflict - A conflict between two desirable alternatives. Approach-avoidance conflict - A conflict that arises when a situation has both positive and negative features. Aptitude tests - An assessment that predicts people’s future ability to acquire skills or knowledge. Archetypes - Images or thoughts that have the same meaning for all human beings. Assimilation - The broadening of an existing schema to include new information. Atherosclerosis - Hardening of arteries because of cholesterol deposits. Attachment - The close bond between babies and their caregivers. Attachment styles - Types of attachment, which include secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, and avoidant attachment. Attitudes - Evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attributions - Inferences people make about the causes of events and behavior. Atypical antipsychotic drugs - A new class of antipsychotic drugs that are effective for treating negative and positive symptoms of schizophrenia. They target the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine. Auditory nerve - A nerve that sends impulses from the ear to the brain. Automatic thoughts - Self-defeating judgments people make about themselves. Autonomic nervous system - The part of the peripheral nervous system connected to the heart, blood vessels, glands, and smooth muscles. Availability heuristic - A rule-of-thumb strategy in which people estimate probability based on how quickly they remember relevant instances of an event. Avoidance-avoidance conflict - A conflict that arises when a choice must be made between two undesirable alternatives. Avoidant personality disorder - A disorder involving social withdrawal, low self-esteem, and extreme sensitivity to being evaluated negatively. Aversion therapy - A therapy in which a stimulus that evokes an unpleasant response is paired with a stimulus that evokes a maladaptive behavior. Axon - A fiber that extends from a neuron and sends signals to other neurons. B Babbling - A producton of sounds that resemble many different languages. Basal metabolic rate - The rate at which energy is used when a person is at complete rest. Basilar membrane - A membrane in the inner ear that runs along the length of the cochlea. Behavior genetics - The study of behavior and personality differences among people. Behavior therapies - Treatments involving complex conversations between therapists and clients that are aimed at directly influencing maladaptive behaviors through the use of learning principles. Belief perseverance - The process of rejecting evidence that refutes one’s beliefs. Benzodiazepines - A class of antianxiety drugs. They are also called tranquilizers. Beta waves - The type of brain waves present when a person is awake and alert. Bias - The distortion of results by a variable that is not part of the hypothesis. Big Five - Five basic personality traits from which other traits are derived. They include neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Binocular cues - Depth perception cues that require both eyes. Biological rhythms - Periodic physiological changes. Biomedical therapies - Treatments that involve efforts to directly alter biological functioning through medication, electric shocks, or surgery. Biopsychosocial model of illness - The idea that physical illness is the result of a complicated interaction among biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. Bipolar disorders - Disorders in which people alternate between periods of depression and mania. Blood-brain barrier - A membrane that lets some substances from the blood into the brain but keeps out others. Borderline personality disorder - A disorder characterized by impulsive behavior and unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image. Brain - The main organ in the nervous system. Brain waves - Tracings that show the electrical activity of the brain. Broca’s area - A part of the brain, in the left frontal lobe, that is involved in speech production. Bulimia nervosa - A disorder involving binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, excessive exercise, or use of laxatives, diuretics, and other medications to control body weight. Bystander effect - The tendency of people to be less likely to offer help to someone who needs it if other people are also present. C Cannon-Bard theory - The idea that the experience of emotion happens at the same time that physiological arousal happens. Case study - A research method in which an individual subject is studied in depth. Castration anxiety - The fear a male child has that his father will cut off his penis for desiring his mother. Catatonic type - A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by unnatural movement patterns such as rigid, unmoving posture or continual, purposeless movements, or by unnatural speech patterns such as absence of speech or parroting of other people’s speech. Catecholamines - Hormones released by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Catharsis - The release of tension that results when repressed thoughts or memories move into a patient’s conscious mind. Central nervous system - The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord. Centration - The tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem and ignore other key aspects. Cerebellum - A part of the hindbrain that controls balance and coordination of movement. Cerebrospinal fluid - The fluid that cushions and nourishes the brain. Cerebrum - The largest part of the brain, involved in abstract thought and learning. Chromosomes - Thin strands of DNA that contain genes. Chunking - The process of combining small bits of information into bigger, familiar pieces. Cilia - Hair cells that are embedded in the basilar membrane of the ear. Cingulotomy - A surgical procedure that involves destruction of part of the frontal lobes. It is sometimes done to treat severe disorders that do not respond to other treatments. Circadian rhythms - Biological cycles that occur about every twenty-four hours. Classical conditioning - A type of learning in which a subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he would to another stimulus by learning to associate the two stimuli. It can also be called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning. Client-centered therapy - A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, that aims to help clients increase self-acceptance and personal growth by providing a supportive emotional environment. Closure - The tendency to interpret familiar, incomplete forms as complete by filling in gaps. Cochlea - A coiled tunnel in the inner ear that is filled with fluid. Cognition - Thinking. It involves mental activities such as understanding, problem solving, decision making, and creativity. Cognitive appraisal - The idea that people’s experience of emotion depends on the way they appraise or evaluate the events around them. Cognitive development - The development of thinking capacity. Cognitive dissonance - An unpleasant state of tension that arises when a person has related cognitions that conflict with one another. Cognitive schema - A mental model of some aspect of the world. Cognitive therapies - Therapies aimed at identifying and changing maladaptive thinking patterns that can result in negative emotions and dysfunctional behavior. Collective unconscious - The part of our minds, according to Carl Jung, that contains universal memories of our common human past. Color blindness - A hereditary condition that makes people unable to distinguish between colors. Commitment - The intent to continue a romantic relationship even in the face of difficulties. Community mental health movement - A movement that advocates treating people with psychological problems in their own communities, providing outpatient treatment, and preventing psychological disorders. Compassionate love - Warmth, trust, and tolerance of a person with whom one is romantically involved. Compensation - According to Alfred Adler, the process of striving to get rid of normal feelings of inferiority. Complexity - The range of wavelengths in light. Componential intelligence - The ability assessed by intelligence tests. Compulsions - Repetitive behaviors that help to prevent or relieve anxiety. Computerized tomography (CT) - A method for studying the brain that involves taking x-rays of the brain from different angles. Concept - A mental category that groups similar objects, events, qualities, or actions. Concordance rate - The percentage of both people in a pair having a certain trait or disorder. Conditioned response - In classical and operant conditioning, a response that resembles an unconditioned response, achieved by pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus - In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a response similar to an unconditioned response through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. Cones - Photoreceptor cells in the retina that allow people to see in color. Confabulation - A phenomenon in which a person thinks he or she remembers something that did not really happen. Confirmation bias - The tendency to look for and accept evidence that supports what one wants to believe and to ignore or reject evidence that refutes those beliefs. Conflict - The experience of having two or more incompatible desires or motives. Conformity - The process of giving in to real or imagined pressure from a group. Congruence - According to Carl Rogers, the accurate match between self-concept and reality. Conscious - The part of the mind that contains all the information that a person is paying attention to at a particular time. Consciousness - The awareness people have of themselves and the environment around them. Conservation - The ability to recognize that measurable physical characteristics of objects can be the same even when objects look different. Consolidation - Transfer of information into long-term memory. Contact comfort - Comfort derived from physical closeness with a caregiver. Contact hypothesis - A hyposthesis stating that prejudice declines when people in an ingroup become more familiar with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an outgroup. Content validity - A test’s ability to measure all the important aspects of the characteristic being measured. Contextual intelligence - The ability to function effectively in daily situations. Continuity - The tendency to perceive interrupted lines and patterns as being continuous by filling in gaps. Continuous reinforcement - A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens every time a particular response occurs. Control group - A group of subjects in an experiment that receives the same treatment and is treated exactly like the experimental group, except with respect to the independent variable. Convergence - The turning inward of eyes when an object is viewed close up. Convergent thinking - A style of thinking in which a person narrows down a list of possibilities to arrive at a single right answer. Conversion disorder - A disorder characterized by medically unexplained symptoms that affect voluntary motor functioning or sensory functioning. Coping - Efforts to manage stress. Cornea - The transparent outer membrane of the eye. Corpus callosum - A band of fibers that divides the cerebrum into two halves. Correlation coefficient - A measurement that indicates the strength of the relationship between two variables. In a positive correlation, one variable increases as the other increases. In a negative correlation, one variable decreases as the other increases. Correlational research method - A research method that provides information about the relationship between variables. It is also called a descriptive research method. Corticosteroids - Hormones released by the adrenal cortex in response to stress. Couples therapy - A type of therapy in which a therapist helps couples identify and resolve conflicts. Creativity - The ability to generate novel, useful ideas. Criterion validity - A test’s ability to predict another criterion of the characteristic being measured. Crystallized intelligence - Intelligence based on the knowledge and skills accumulated over the life span. Culture-bound disorders - Psychological disorders that are limited to specific cultural contexts. D Dark adaptation - The process by which receptor cells become more sensitive to light. Decay theory - A theory stating that memory traces fade with time. Decentration - The ability to focus simultaneously on several aspects of a problem. Decision-making - The process of weighing alternatives and choosing among them. Declarative memory - The remembering of factual information. Declarative memory is usually considered explicit. Deductive reasoning - The process by which a particular conclusion is drawn from a set of general premises or statements. Defense mechanisms - Behaviors that protect people from anxiety. Deindividuation - The tendency of people in a large, arousing, anonymous group to lose inhibitions, sense of responsibility, and self-consciousness. Deinstitutionalization - The trend toward providing treatment through community-based outpatient clinics rather than inpatient hospitals. Delta waves - The type of brain waves present when a person is deeply asleep. Delusions - False beliefs that are held strongly despite contradictory evidence. Dementia - A condition characterized by several significant psychological deficits. Dendrite - A fiber that extends from a neuron. It received signals from other neurons and sends them toward the cell body. Dendritic trees - Highly branched fibers extending from neurons. Denial - A defense mechanism that involves refusing to acknowledge something that is obvious to others. Dependent variable - The variable that is observed in an experiment and that may be affected by manipulations of the independent variable. Descriptive statistics - Numbers that researchers use to describe their data so it can be organized and summarized. Development - The series of age-related changes that occurs over the course of a person’s life span. Developmental norms - The median ages at which children develop specific behaviors and abilities. Diabetes - A condition caused by a deficiency of insulin. Diagnosis - The process of distinguishing among disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) - A reference book used by psychologists and psychiatrists to diagnose psychological disorders. Dialectical reasoning - A process of going back and forth between opposing points of view in order to come up with a satisfactory solution to a problem. Dichromat - A person who is sensitive to only two of the three wavelengths of light. Difference threshold - The smallest difference in stimulation that is detectable 50 percent of the time. This threshold is also called the just noticeable difference, or jnd. Diffusion of responsibility - The tendency for an individual to feel less responsible in the presence of others because responsibility is distributed among all the people present. Discriminative stimulus - In operant conditioning, a cue that indicates the kind of consequence that’s likely to occur after a response. Disease model of addiction - The idea that addiction is a disease that has to be medically treated. Disorganized type - A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by disorganized behavior, disorganized speech, and emotional flatness or inappropriateness. Displacement - A defense mechanism that involves transferring feelings about a person or event to someone or something else. Display rules - Norms that tell people whether, which, how, and when emotions should be displayed. Dissociative amnesia - A disorder characterized by an inability to remember extensive, important personal information, usually about something traumatic or painful. Dissociative disorders - Disorders characterized by disturbances in consciousness, memory, identity, and perception. Dissociative fugue - A disorder in which a person suddenly and unexpectedly leaves home, fails to remember the past, and becomes confused about his or her identity. Dissociative identity disorder - A disorder in which a person fails to remember important personal information and has two or more identities or personality states that control behavior. It is also called multiple personality disorder. Dissonance theory - A theory that proposes that people change their attitudes when they have attitudes that are inconsistent with one another. Distributed practice - The practice of learning material in short sessions over a long period. It is also called the spacing effect. Divergent thinking - A style of thinking in which people’s thoughts go off in different directions as they try to generate many different solutions to a problem. Dopamine - A neurotransmitter involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotion. Double-blind - A procedure in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows which subjects belong to the experimental and control groups. Drive reduction theories of motivation - Ideas that suggest people act in order to reduce needs and maintain a constant physiological state. Drug therapy - Treatment that involves the use of medications. It is also called pharmacotherapy. Dysthymic disorder - A disorder involving depressed mood on a majority of days for at least two years. E Eating disorders - Disorders characterized by problematic eating patterns, extreme concerns about body weight, and inappropriate behaviors aimed at controlling body weight. Echoic memory - Auditory sensory memory. Efferent nerves - Bundles of axons that carry information from the central nervous system to muscles and sense organs. Ego - The component of the personality that manages the conflict among the id, the superego, and the constraints of the real world. Egocentrism - The inability to take someone else’s point of view. Elaboration - A type of deep processing in which information being learned is associated with other meaningful material. Elaboration likelihood model - The idea that changes to attitudes tend to be longer lasting when people think about the content of persuasive messages they receive. Electric stimulation of the brain - An invasive method of studying the brain, in which an implanted electrode activates a particular brain structure. Electrocardiograph (EKG) - An instrument that records the activity of the heart. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - A biomedical treatment that uses electrical shocks to treat severe depression. Electroencephalograph (EEG) - A device that records the overall electrical activity of the brain, via electrodes placed on the scalp. Electromyograph (EMG) - An instrument that records muscle activity. Electrooculograph (EOG) - An instrument that records eye movements. Elimination by aspects - The process of eliminating alternatives in a decision based on whether they do or do not possess aspects or attributes the decision maker has deemed necessary or desirable. Embryo - A ball of cells that develops during the embryonic stage. Embryonic stage - The period that begins two weeks after conception and ends two months after conception. Emotion - A complex, subjective experience that is accompanied by biological and behavioral changes. Emotion work - The process of acting out of an emotion that is not really felt. Emotional intelligence - An ability that helps people perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. Empirically validated treatments - Treatments that are shown by research to be more effective for a particular problem than a placebo or no treatment. Empty nest - The time in parents’ lives when their children have grown up and moved away from home. Encoding - The process of putting information into memory. Endocrine system - A network of tissues that allows the body to communicate via hormones. Endogenous biological rhythms - Biological cycles that originate from inside the body rather than depend on cues from the environment. Endorphins - A group of neurotransmitters involved in pain relief, pleasure, and modulating the action of other neurotransmitters. Episodic memory - The remembering of personal facts. Ethics - A system of moral values. Etiology - The cause or origin of a disorder. Evolution - A change in the frequency of genes in a population. Excitatory postsynaptic potential - A positive change in voltage that occurs when a neurotransmitter binds to an excitatory receptor site. Existential therapies - Therapies aimed at helping clients find meaning in their lives. Expected value - The process of adding the value of a win times the probability of a win to the value of a loss times the probability of a loss in order to make a decision. Experiential intelligence - The ability to adapt to new situations and produce new ideas. Experiment - A research method that provides information about causal relationships between variables. Experimental group - A group of subjects in an experiment for whom the independent variable is manipulated. Experimenter bias - A source of error that arises when researchers’ preferences or expectations influence the outcome of research. Explicit attitudes - Conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior. Explicit memory - Conscious, intentional remembering of information. Exposure therapies - Therapies that aim to eliminate anxiety responses by having clients face real or imagined versions of feared stimuli. Expressive language - The ability to use language to communicate. External attribution - An inference that a person’s behavior is due to situational factors. It is also called situational attribution. External locus of control - The tendency to believe that circumstances are not within one’s control but rather are due to luck, fate, or other people. Extinction - In classical conditioning, the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it’s the gradual disappearance of a response after it stops being reinforced. Extraneous variable - A variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable. It is not part of the hypothesis. Extrinsic motivation - The motivation to act for external rewards. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) - A type of exposure therapy in which clients move their eyes back and forth while recalling memories that are to be desensitized. F Facial-feedback hypothesis - The idea that the brain uses feedback from facial muscles to recognize emotions that are being experienced. Factor analysis - A statistical procedure that clusters variables into dimensions depending on similarities among the variables. Falsifiability - The ability of a theory or hypothesis to be rejected. Family studies - Studies in which researchers examine trait similarities among members of a family to figure out whether that trait might be inherited. Family therapy - A type of therapy in which a therapist sees two or more members of a family at the same time. Feature detectors - Specialized neurons that are activated by specific features of the environment. Fee for service - An arrangement for health care in which people pay providers for health care services. Feigned scarcity - Implying that a product is in scarce supply, even when it is not, in order to increase demand for it. Fetal alcohol syndrome - A collection of symptoms that may be present in babies of alcoholic mothers who drank heavily in pregnancy. Fetal stage - The last stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months after conception until birth. Figure - What stands out when people organize visual information. Fixation - An inability to progress normally from one psychosexual stage of development into another. Fixed-interval schedule - A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set amount of time. Fixed-ratio schedule - A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set number of responses. Flashbulb memories - Vivid, detailed memories of important events. Flooding - A type of exposure therapy in which the client is exposed to a feared stimulus suddenly rather than gradually. Flynn effect - Phenomenon showing that people’s performance on IQ tests has improved over time in industrialized countries. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon - The tendency to agree to a difficult request if one has first agreed to an easy request. Forebrain - The biggest and most complex part of the brain, which includes structures such as the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the limbic system, and the cerebrum. Forgetting curve - A graph that shows how quickly learned information is forgotten over time. Fovea - The center of the retina, where vision is sharpest. Free association - A psychoanalytic technique that involves having the client verbalize all thoughts that come to mind. Frequency - The number of times per second a sound wave cycles from the highest to the lowest point. Frequency theory - A theory explaining how people discriminate low-pitched sounds that have a frequency below 1000 Hz. Frustration - The experience of being thwarted in the process of achieving a goal. Frustration-aggression hypothesis - A hypothesis stating that aggression is always caused by frustration. Functional fixedness - The tendency to think only of an object’s most common use in solving a problem. Fundamental attribution error - The tendency to attribute other people’s behavior to internal factors such as personality traits, abilities, and feelings. It is also called correspondence bias. G GABA - The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Galvanic skin response - An increase in the skin’s rate of electrical conductivity. It is also known as an electrodermal response. Gambler’s fallacy - The false belief that a chance event is more likely if it hasn’t happened recently. Gate-control theory - States that pain signals traveling from the body to the brain must go through a gate in the spinal cord. Gender - A learned distinction between masculinity and femininity. Gender stereotypes - Societal beliefs about the characteristics of males and females. General adaptation syndrome - The stress response of an organism, described by Hans Selye. The response has three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. General intelligence factor (g) - An ability that underlies all intelligent behavior, proposed by Charles Spearman. Generalized anxiety disorder - A disorder involving persistent and excessive anxiety or worry that lasts at least six months. Generative - The characteristic symbols of a language that can be combined to produce an infinite number of messages. Genes - Segments of DNA that function as hereditary units. Germinal stage - The two-week period after conception. Gestalt psychology - A German school of thought that studies how people organize visual information into patterns and forms. Glial cells - Cells that give structural support to neurons and nourish and insulate them. Glucose - A simple sugar that acts as an energy source for cells. Glutamate - The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Grandiose delusion - A belief centered around the idea that one is very important or famous. Ground - The background in which a figure stands when people organize visual information. Group - A social unit composed of two or more people who interact and depend on one another in some way. Group cohesiveness - The strength of the liking and commitment group members have toward one another and to the group. Group polarization - The tendency for a dominant point of view in a group to be strengthened to a more extreme position after a group discussion. Groupthink - The tendency of a close-knit group to emphasize consensus at the expense of critical thinking and rational decision making. H Hallucinations - Sensory or perceptual experiences that happen without any external stimulus. Hallucinogens - Drugs that cause sensory and perceptual distortions. Health psychology - A branch of psychology that focuses on the relationship between psychosocial factors and the emergence, progression, and treatment of illness. Heritability - A mathematical estimate that indicates how much of a trait’s variation in a population can be attributed to genetic factors. Heuristic - A general rule of thumb that may lead to, but doesn’t guarantee, a correct solution to a problem. Hierarchical classification - The ability to classify according to more than one level. Hierarchy of needs theory - The idea, proposed by Abraham Maslow, that people are motivated by needs on four levels. Maslow believed people pay attention to higher needs only when lower needs are satisfied. Higher-order conditioning - In classical conditioning, the process by which a neutral stimulus comes to act as a conditioned stimulus by being paired with another stimulus that already evokes a conditioned response. Hindbrain - Portion of the brain consisting of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum. Hindsight bias - The tendency to interpret the past in a way that fits the present. Hippocampus - A part of the limbic system involved in memory. Histogram or bar graph - A plot that shows how data are distributed. Histrionic personality - A personality type characterized by a desire to be the center of attention and the tendency to be self-focused, excitable, highly open to suggestion, very emotional, and dramatic. Histrionic personality disorder - A disorder characterized by attention-seeking behavior and shallow emotions. Homeostasis - Maintenance of a state of physiological equilibrium in the body. Hormones - Chemicals that are produced in glands and released into the bloodstream, involved in regulating body functions. Humanism - A school of thought that encourages seeing people’s lives as those people would see them. Humanistic therapies - Therapies aimed at helping people accept themselves and free themselves from unnecessary limitations. Hypnosis - A procedure in which suggestions are made to a person. Hypochondriasis - A disorder in which a person has constant fears of having a serious disease. Hypothalamus - A part of the forebrain that helps to control the pituitary gland, the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, and biological drives. Hypothesis - A testable prediction of what is going to happen given a certain set of conditions. I Iconic memory - Visual sensory memory. Id - The component of the personality that contains instinctual energy. Identity achievement - A state in which a person commits to an identity after considering alternative possibilities. Identity diffusion - A state of confusion when a person lacks a clear sense of identity and hasn’t yet begun exploring issues related to identity development. Identity foreclosure - A state in which a person has prematurely committed to values or roles prescribed by others. Identity moratorium - A state in which commitment to an identity is delayed while a person experiments with various roles and values. Illusion - A misinterpretation of a sensory stimulus. Immune system - The body’s defense against harmful agents such as bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances. Implantation - The process by which the embryo becomes embedded in the wall of the uterus. Implicit attitudes - Beliefs that are unconscious but that can still influence decisions and behavior. Implicit memory - Unconscious retention of information that affects thoughts and behavior. Incentive - An environmental stimulus that pulls people to act in a particular way. Inclusive fitness - The reproductive fitness of an individual organism plus any effect that the organism has on increasing reproductive fitness in related organisms. Incongruence - According to Carl Rogers and other humanistic therapists, a disparity between the self-concept and reality. Independent variable - The variable that is manipulated in an experiment. Individual psychology - Alfred Adler’s school of thought, which maintains that the main motivations for human behavior are not sexual or aggressive urges but strivings for superiority. Inductive reasoning - The drawing of a general conclusion from certain premises or statements. Inferential statistics - Statistics used to determine the likelihood that a result is just due to chance. Inferiority complex - An exaggerated sense of inferiority. Informational social influence - An individual’s tendency to conform because a group provides one with information. Informed consent - A subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in a research study, given after he or she has learned enough about the study to make a knowledgeable decision to participate. Infradian rhythms - Biological cycles that take longer than twenty-four hours. Ingroup - A group to which one belongs. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - A negative change in voltage that occurs when a neurotransmitter binds to an inhibitory receptor. Innate abilities - Abilities that are present from birth. Insanity - A legal term that refers to the mental inability to take responsibility for one’s actions. Insight therapies - Treatments involving complex conversations between therapists and clients. The treatments aim to help clients understand the nature of their problems and the meaning of their behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Insomnia - A chronic problem with falling or staying asleep. Instinctive drift - The tendency for conditioning to be hindered by natural instincts. Insulin - A hormone secreted by the pancreas. Integrative approach - Therapy approaches that combine the ideas and techniques of several different schools of psychology. Intelligence - The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. It includes the ability to benefit from past experience, act purposefully, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. Intelligence quotient (IQ) - A person’s mental age divided by his or her chronological age and multiplied by 100. Interference theory - States that people forget information because of interference from other learned information. Intermittent reinforcement - A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens only on some of the occasions a particular response occurs. It is also called partial reinforcement. Internal attribution - An inference that an event or a person’s behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings. It is also called dispositional attribution. Internal locus of control - The tendency to believe that one has control over one’s circumstances. Interpersonal attraction - Positive feelings about another person. Interpretation - A psychoanalytic technique that involves suggesting the hidden meanings of free associations, dreams, feelings, memories, and behavior to the client. Interval schedule - The schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular time interval. Intimacy - The warm, close, caring aspect of a romantic relationship. Intrinsic motivation - The motivation to act for the sake of the activity alone. Ions - Positively and negatively charged atoms and molecules. Iris - A ring of muscle that surrounds the pupil in the eye. Irreversibility - The inability to mentally reverse an operation. J James-Lange theory - The idea that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies’ physiological responses to external events. Justification of effort - The idea that if one works hard to reach a goal, one is likely to value that goal. Just world hypothesis - The tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve. K Kinesthesis - The sense of the position and movement of body parts. L Laboratory observation - An observational research method in which information about subjects is collected in a laboratory setting. Language - A system of symbols and rules used for meaningful communication. Latent content - The hidden meaning of a dream. Lateralization - The difference in specialization between the two hemispheres of the brain. Law of effect - A law proposed by Edward Thorndike stating that any behavior that has good consequences will tend to be repeated, and any behavior that has bad consequences will tend to be avoided. Learned helplessness - A tendency to give up passively in the face of unavoidable stressors. Learning - A change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. Learning model - The idea that psychological disorders result from the reinforcement of abnormal behavior. Learning model of addiction - The idea that addiction is a way of coping with stress. Lens - Part of the eye behind the pupil and iris. It can adjust its shape to focus light from objects that are near or far away. Leptin - A hormone secreted by fat cells. Lesioning studies - An invasive method of studying the brain in which a specific, small area of the brain is destroyed. Lie scales - Statistics used to provide information about the likelihood that a subject is lying in a test. Light - A kind of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun, stars, fire, and lightbulbs. Light adaptation - The process by which receptor cells become less sensitive to light. Light intensity - The amount of light emitted or reflected by an object. Limbic system - A part of the forebrain involved in emotional experience and memory. Linguistic relativity hypothesis - A theory proposed by Benjamin Lee Whorf that claims that language determines the way people think. Link method - The process of associating items with one another in order to remember them. Lithium - A drug prescribed for treating bipolar disorders. Lobotomy - A surgical procedure that severs nerve tracts in the frontal lobe, formerly used to treat certain psychological disorders but now rarely performed. Locus of control - People’s perception of whether or not they have control over circumstances in their lives. Long-term memory - A memory system that stores an unlimited amount of information permanently. Long-term potentiation - A lasting change at synapses that occurs when long-term memories form. Lowball technique - The act of making an attractive proposition and revealing its downsides only after a person has agreed to it. Lucid dreams - Dreams in which people are aware that they are dreaming. M Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - A method for studying the brain that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce pictures of the brain. Major depressive disorder - A disorder diagnosed after at least one major depressive episode. Major depressive episode - A period of at least two weeks marked by sadness or irritability and loss of interest in activities. Other symptoms may include changed sleeping or eating patterns, low energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, difficulty concentrating, and recurrent thoughts about suicide. Managed care - An arrangement for health care in which an organization, such as a health maintenance organization, acts as an intermediary between a person seeking care and a treatment provider. Manifest content - The plot of a dream. Massed practice - The process of learning material over a short period; also called cramming. Matching hypothesis - The idea that people tend to pick partners who are about equal in level of attractiveness to themselves. Maturation - Genetically programmed growth and development. Mean - The arithmetic average of a set of scores. Measures of central tendency - The mean, median, and mode. Median - The middle score in a set when all scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest. Medical model - A way of describing and explaining psychological disorders as if they are diseases. Meditation - The practice of focusing attention. Medulla - A part of the hindbrain that controls essential functions that are not under conscious control, such as breathing. Melatonin - A hormone that regulates the sleep cycle. Memory - The capacity for storing and retrieving information. Menarche - A woman’s first menstrual period. Menopause - The gradual, permanent cessation of menstruation. Mental age - The chronological age that typically corresponds to a particular level of performance. It is used as a measure of performance on intelligence tests. Mental hospitals - Medical institutions that specialize in providing treatment for psychological disorders. Mental set - A tendency to use only solutions that have worked in the past. Mere exposure effect - The tendency to like novel stimuli more if one encounters them repeatedly. Metalinguistic awareness - The capacity to think about how language is used. Method of loci - The process of imagining oneself physically in a familiar place in order to remember something. Midbrain - The part of the brain between the hindbrain and forebrain that is involved in locating events in space and that contains a dopamine-releasing system of neurons. Midlife crisis - A time of doubt and anxiety in middle adulthood. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) - A test developed to help clinical psychologists diagnose psychological disorders. Misinformation effect - The tendency for recollections of events to be distorted by information given after the event occurred. Mnemonics - Strategies for improving memory. Mode - The most frequently occurring score in a set of scores. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) - A class of antidepressant drugs that increase the level of norepinephrine and serotonin. Monocular cues - Depth perception cues that require only one eye. Monogenic traits - Traits determined by a single gene. Mood disorders - Disorders characterized by marked disturbances in emotional state, which affect thinking, physical symptoms, social relationships, and behavior. Moral reasoning - The reasons and processes that cause people to think the way they do about right and wrong. Morpheme - The smallest meaningful unit in a language. Motivated forgetting - The idea that people forget things they don’t want to remember; also called psychogenic amnesia. Motivation - An internal process that makes a person move toward a goal. Motive - An impulse that causes a person to act. Motor development - The increasing coordination of muscles that makes physical movements possible. Muller-Lyer illusion - Illusion in which two lines of the same length appear to be different lengths because of different diagonal lines attached to the end of each line. Mutations - Small changes in genes. Myelin sheath - The fatty coating around some axons that increases the speed of neural impulse transmission. N Name calling - A strategy of labeling people in order to influence their or others’ thinking. Narcissistic personality disorder - A disorder in which a person has an exaggerated sense of importance, a strong desire to be admired, and a lack of empathy. Narcolepsy - A tendency to fall asleep periodically during the day. Narcotics - Drugs that can relieve pain; also called opiates. Narrative method - The process of making up a story in order to remember something. Naturalistic observation - A method of collecting information about subjects in a natural setting without interfering with them in any way. Negative correlation - A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other one decreases. Negatively skewed distribution - A data distribution with a few very low scores. Negative punishment - In operant conditioning, the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be less likely to occur. Negative reinforcement - In operant conditioning, the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be more likely to occur. Negative symptoms - Indicated by an absence or reduction of normal behavior. NEO Personality Inventory - A test that measures the Big Five traits: extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Nerves - Bundles of axons extending from many neurons. Nervous system - A complex, highly coordinated network of tissues that communicate via electrochemical signals. Neurons - Nervous system cells that communicate via electrochemical signals. Neurotransmitters - Chemicals that are released from a neuron and activate another neuron. Nocturnal emissions - Signal of the onset of puberty for boys; also called wet dreams. Norepinephrine - A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, dreaming, awakening, emotion, and responses to stress. Normal distribution - A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents how characteristics such as IQ are distributed in a large population. Normative social influence - An individual’s tendency to conform because of a need to be accepted or not rejected by a group. Norms - Data that provide information about how a person’s test score compares with the scores of other test takers. Nucleotides - Biochemical units that make up DNA and genes. O Obedience - Compliance with commands given by an authority figure. Objective personality tests - Tests that usually consist of self-report inventories. Commonly used objective tests include the MMPI-2, the 16PF, and the NEO Personality Inventory. Objective test - Generally a pencil-and-paper-type standardized test used to assess a psychological disorder. Object permanence - The ability to recognize that an object exists even when the object is not present and not perceived. Object relations - The relationships that people have with others, who are represented mentally as objects with certain attributes. Observational learning - A change in behavior or knowledge that happens by watching others. It can also be called vicarious conditioning. Obsessions - Persistent ideas, thoughts, impulses, or images that cause anxiety or distress. Obsessive-compulsive disorder - A disorder involving obsessions, compulsions, or both. Occam’s razor - See principle of parsimony. Oedipus complex - In psychoanalytic theory, a male child’s sexual desire for his mother and his hostility toward his father, whom he considers to be a rival for his mother’s love. Operant conditioning - A type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences. Operational definition - A way of stating precisely how a variable will be measured. Opponent process theory - A theory of color vision that states that the visual system has receptors responding in opposite ways to wavelengths associated with three pairs of colors. Optic disk - The point in the retina at which the optic nerve leaves the eye. This point is also called the blind spot. Optic nerve - A bundle of ganglion cell axons that originate in the retina. Optimism - The tendency to expect positive outcomes. Ossicles - Three bones in the middle ear called the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. Outgroup - A group to which one does not belong. Overlearning - Continuing to practice material even after it is learned in order to increase retention. Overcompensation - According to Alfred Adler, the attempt to cover up a sense of inferiority by focusing on outward signs of superiority such as status, wealth, and power. Overconfidence effect - The tendency for people to be too certain that their beliefs, decisions, estimates, and accuracy of recall are correct. P Panic attack - A period in which a person has uncomfortable and frightening physical and psychological symptoms, including heart palpitations, trembling, fear of dying, and a perceived loss of control. Panic disorder - A disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. Papillae - Small bumps on the skin that hold taste buds, which in turn hold the taste receptors in the tongue and throat, on the inside of the cheeks, and on the roof of the mouth. Paranoid type - A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by marked delusions or hallucinations and relatively normal cognitive and emotional functioning. Parasympathetic nervous system - Part of the autonomic nervous system that keeps the body still and conserves energy. It is active during states of relaxation. Parental investment - The sum of resources spent in order to produce and raise offspring. Partial reinforcement effect - Phenomenon in which responses resist extinction because of partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement. Passionate love - Sexual desire and tenderness for, and intense absorption in, a person with whom one is romantically involved. Peg word method - Process of remembering a rhyme that associates numbers with words and words with the items to be remembered. Penis envy - In psychoanalytic theory, a sense of discontent and resentment that Freud thought women experience, resulting from their wish for a penis. Percentile score - A score that indicates the percentage of people who achieved the same as or less than a particular score. Perception - Organization and interpretation of sensory information. Perceptual constancy - The ability to recognize that an object is the same even when it produces different images on the retina. Perceptual set - The readiness to see in a particular way that’s based on expectations, experiences, emotions, and assumptions. Perceptual speed - The amount of time a person takes to accurately perceive and discriminate between stimuli. Peripheral nervous system - The part of the nervous system outside the brain and the spinal cord that includes the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. Persecutory delusion - A belief centered on the idea that one is being oppressed, pursued, or harassed. Personality - The collection of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make up a person. Personality disorders - Disorders characterized by stable patterns of experience and behavior that differ noticeably from patterns considered normal by a person’s culture. Personal unconscious - An individual’s unconscious, unique to him or her. Person-centered theory - A theory, proposed by Carl Rogers, stating that the self-concept is the most important feature of personality. Person perception - The process of forming impressions about other people. Phi phenomenon - An illusion of movement that arises when a series of images is presented very quickly one after another; also called stroboscopic movement. Phoneme - The smallest distinguishable unit in a language. Phonemic encoding - A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes how words sound. Photoreceptor - Cells that are specialized to receive light stimuli. Physical dependence - Addiction based on a need to avoid withdrawal symptoms. Pineal gland - A gland that secretes melatonin. Pinna - The visible part of the ear. Pituitary - The master gland of the endocrine system, which regulates the function of many other glands. Placebo effect - The effect on a subject of receiving a fake drug or treatment. Expectations of improvement contribute to placebo effects. Placenta - The tissue that passes oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood into the fetus and removes waste materials from the fetus. Place theory - Explains how people discriminate high-pitched sounds that have a frequency greater than 5000 Hz. Pleasure principle - The drive to achieve pleasure and avoid pain. It is the operating principle of the id. Polygenic traits - Traits influenced by several genes. Polygraph or lie detector - A device that detects changes in autonomic arousal. Polygyny - A mating system in which a single male mates with many females. Pons - A part of the hindbrain involved in sleeping, waking, and dreaming. Population - The collection of individuals from which a sample is drawn. Positive correlation - A relationship between two variables in which as one variable increases, the other does too. Positively skewed distribution - A data distribution with a few very high scores. Positive punishment - In operant conditioning, the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be less likely to occur. Positive reinforcement - In operant conditioning, the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be more likely to occur. Positive symptoms - Symptoms indicated by the presence of altered behaviors. Positron emission tomography (PET) - A method for studying the brain that involves injecting a radioactive substance, which collects in active brain areas. Postsynaptic neuron - At a synapse, the neuron that receives a neurotransmitter. Postsynaptic potential - The voltage change that occurs at a receptor site of a postsynaptic neuron when a neurotransmitter molecule links up with a receptor molecule. Posthypnotic amnesia - The phenomenon that occurs when a person who has been hypnotized and instructed to forget what ha

Absolute monarchy - A political system under which a king or queen has complete control of a country. Achieved status - A status that we either earn or choose and that is not subject to where or to whom we were born. Agents of socialization - People, groups, and experiences that influence our behaviour and self-image. Aggregate - A collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time but have no other connection to one another. Agricultural or agrarian society - A society that raises crops by using animal-drawn plows. Alienation - The feeling of workers in a bureaucracy that they are being treated as objects rather than people. American Dream - The belief that all Americans, regardless of the conditions of their birth, have an equal chance to achieve success. Anomie - According to strain theory, the feeling of being disconnected from society that can occur when people aren’t provided with the institutionalized means to achieve their goals. The term was coined by Émile Durkheim. Anticipatory socialization - The learning of new norms and values in anticipation of a future role. Apartheid - A social system in which there is total separation of the races. Appearance - The way we look physically to other people. Ascribed status - A trait or characteristic people possess as a result of the circumstances of birth. Assimilation - The process whereby members of a group give up parts of their own culture in order to blend in to a new culture. Authoritarianism - A political system that does not allow citizens to participate in government. Belief - A specific idea that people feel to be true. Blue-collar - Another term for the working class. Body language - The ways in which we use our bodies consciously and unconsciously to communicate. Bourgeoisie - Karl Marx’s term for the owners of the means of production—factories, businesses, and equipment needed to produce wealth. Bureaucracy - According to Weber, a type of formal organization in which a rational approach is used for the handling of large tasks. Capitalism - The economic system in which the means of production are owned privately and individuals are free to keep the profits they make. Capitalist class - In industrialized societies, the rich and powerful and the owners of the means of production. It is also called the elite. Caste system - A system of stratification based on ascribed statuses. Category - A collection of people who share a particular characteristic but have nothing else in common. Charismatic authority - Authority that depends on the personal magnetism of one person, according to Weber’s power theory. Church - A religious group integrated with society. Class system - A system of stratification based on achieved statuses. Clergy - The middle stratum of the estate system of stratification composed of Roman Catholic priests. Clique - An internal cluster or faction within a group. Colonialism - The tendency for a powerful country to invade a weaker country in order to exploit its resources by making it a colony. Commoners - The lowest stratum of the estate system of stratification composed of the masses of people who spent their lives engaged in hard physical labour. Communism - An economic system similar to socialism in which all the means of production would be owned by everyone and all profits would be shared equally by everyone. Conflict theory - Marx’s theory that in any capitalist society there is eternal conflict between the owners of the means of production and the workers. Conflict view of deviance - The view that purports that equality in a capitalist society is an illusion. The owners of the means of production have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo by keeping the working class in a disadvantaged position. Conformists - According to Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who accept cultural goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them. Constitutional monarchy - A monarchy in which the reigning member of the royal family is the symbolic head of state but elected officials actually do the governing. Control theory - Walter Recess’s theory that posits that when a person is tempted to engage in deviance, inner controls and outer controls can prevent him or her from doing so. Counterculture - A way of living that opposes the dominant culture. Crime - The violation of a written law. Crime against the person - An act of violence either threatened or perpetrated against a person. Crime against property - The theft of property or certain forms of damage against the property of another person. Cult - A religious group that is outside standard cultural norms. Cultural diffusion - The process whereby an aspect of culture spreads throughout a culture or from one culture to another. Cultural relativism - The attitude that in order to understand the traits of another culture, one must view them within the context of that culture. Culture - Everything made, learned, and shared by the members of a society. Culture lag - The tendency for changes in material culture to occur at a more rapid rate than changes in nonmaterial culture. Culture of poverty - The phrase that Oscar Lewis used to describe the idea that poor people do not learn the norms and values that can help them improve their circumstances and hence get trapped in a repeated pattern of poverty. Culture shock - The surprise, disorientation, and fear people can experience upon encountering a different culture. Degradation ceremony - Garfunkel’s term for the process whereby an individual with a spoiled identity is expelled from a group and stripped of his or her group membership. Democracy - A political system in which citizens periodically choose officials to run their government. Deviance - The violation of a norm. Deviant subculture - A way of living that differs from the dominant culture, in which members share a particular form of deviance. Differential association - Edwin Sutherland’s theory that posits that deviance is learned behavior. Divine right of kings - An ideology developed by the nobility during the Middle Ages that posited that the authority of the nobility came directly from God. Dominant culture - The culture held by the majority and/or by the most powerful group in a society. Dramaturgy - Goffman’s theory that life is like a never-ending play in which people are actors. Dyad - A group composed of two people. Economy - The institution responsible for the production and distribution of goods and services. Education - The institution responsible for preparing young people for a functional place in adult life and for transmitting culture from one generation to the next. Ego - According to Freud, the part of the mind that resolves conflicts between the id and the superego. Endogamy - Marriage between members of the same category, class, or group. Estate system - The three-tiered stratification system used during the Middle Ages. Ethnocentrism - The tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. Ethnomethodology - A theoretical perspective formulated by Garfinkel that examines how people’s background assumptions help them make sense of everyday situations. Exogamy - Marriage between members of different categories, classes, or groups. Extended family - Several generations or branches of a family. Family - The institution responsible for the rearing of children. Feminization of poverty - The phrase that describes the increasing number of female-headed households living at or below the poverty level. Folkway - A norm followed out of convenience or tradition. Formal organization - A secondary group that is organized to achieve specific goals and tends to be large and impersonal. Gender role - A set of behaviours, attitudes, and personality characteristics expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex. Gender socialization - The tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently. Generalized other - George Herbert Mead’s term for the internalization of the norms and values of a culture. Global stratification - The stratification of nations. Globalization of capitalism - The adoption of capitalism by countries around the world. Goal displacement - A formal organization’s displacement of one goal with another in order to continue to exist. It is also called goal replacement. Goals and means - Robert Merton’s theory that examines how members of a society adapt their goals to the means that society provides of achieving them. Government - The institution responsible for making and enforcing the rules of society and for regulating relations with other societies. Group - Two or more people who interact over time, have a sense of identity or belonging, and have norms that non-members do not have. Group dynamics - A term that implies that our thoughts and behaviour are influenced by the groups of which we are members and, in turn, we influence the thought process and behaviour of the group as a whole. Groupthink - A term coined by Irving Janis that refers to the tendency of people in positions of power to follow the opinions of the group, to the point that there is a narrow view of the issue at hand. Halo effect - The assumption that a physically attractive person also possesses other good qualities. Health - The well-being of people. Holistic medicine - A medical approach that involves learning about a patient’s physical environment and mental state. Horticultural society - A society in which hand tools are used to grow crops. Hunting and gathering society - A society in which people acquire food by hunting game and gathering edible plants. Id - According to Freud, the first part of the mind to develop and the part of the self-responsible for the satisfaction of physical states. Ideal type - Max Weber’s theoretical model of how a formal organization should function. Ideology - A set of values that people devise to rationalize a particular social custom. Illegitimate opportunity structures - Cloward and Ohlin’s term for opportunities for crimes that are a basic part of our society. Impression management - Goffman’s term for the tendency of individuals to manipulate the impressions that others have of them. In-group - A group to which one belongs and to which one feels loyalty. Indentured servitude - A system of stratification in which an individual agrees to sell his or her body or labour to another for a specified period of time. Industrial society - A society that uses advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery. Industrializing nations - Countries that are in the process of becoming industrialized; includes most of the countries of the former Soviet Union. Inner controls - According to control theory, the thought processes such as morality or a conscience that reside within people and that can prevent them from committing acts of deviance. Innovators - According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who accept cultural goals but reject the institutional means of achieving them. Institution - A set of norms surrounding the carrying out of a function necessary for the survival of a society. Institutionalized means - Legitimate, socially approved ways that societies offer their members to achieve culturally approved goals. Labelling theory - A theory of deviance put forth by Howard Becker that claims that deviance is that which is so labelled. Law - A norm that is written down and enforced by an official agency. Least industrialized nations - Primarily agricultural nations that account for half of the land on Earth. Looking-glass self - Charles Horton Cooley’s theory of socialization, which posits that we form our self-images on the basis of what we perceive to be others’ views of us. Macrosociology - Sociological analysis focused on large-scale social forces. Manner of interacting - The attitudes that we convey in an attempt to get others to form certain impressions about us. According to Goffman, it is one of the sign vehicles we use to present ourselves to others, along with the setting and our appearance. Mass media - Communications media that direct messages and entertainment at a wide audience. Mass society - A large impersonal society in which individual achievement is valued over kinship ties and in which people often feel isolated from one another. Master status - A status we possess that overrides all other statuses and becomes the one by which we are known to others. Material culture - The tangible, visible items of a culture. Matrilocality - A social custom in which married couples live in the home of the wife’s family. Medicine - The institution responsible for defining and treating mental and physical problems among its members. Melting pot - A term used to refer to a pluralistic society in which people who originally come from different societies blend together to form a new society. Meritocracy - A system of stratification in which positions are given according to individual merit. Microsociology - Sociological analysis focused on social interaction between individuals. Middle class - The class that consists of people who earn their money by working at professional jobs, also called white-collar jobs. Monarchy - A political system in which a representative from one family controls the government and power is passed on through that family from generation to generation. Monogamy - Marriage between one man and one woman. Monotheism - Belief in a single deity. Moral reasoning - The reasons that people think the way they do about what’s right and wrong. More - A norm based on notions of morality. Most industrialized nations - Highly industrialized, capitalistic countries, including America, Canada, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Japan. Multiculturalism - A term often used instead of “melting pot” to denote a pluralistic society in which the original cultural heritages of its citizens are recognized and respected. Multinational corporations - Large corporations that do business in a number of different countries. Negative sanction - A socially constructed expression of disapproval. Neocolonialism - Michael Harrington’s term for the tendency of the most industrialized nations to exploit less developed countries politically and economically. Neolocality - A social custom in which married couples move to a new home of their own together. Network - A series of social ties that can be important sources of information, contacts, and assistance for its members. New money - The class that consists of people whose wealth has been around only for a generation or two. Nobility - The highest stratum of the estate system of stratification. Members had significant inherited wealth and did little or no discernible work. Nonmaterial culture - The intangible, invisible parts of a culture, such as values. Norm - A guideline or an expectation for behavior. Nuclear family - One or both parents and their children. Oligarchy - The rule of the many by the few. Out-group - A group to which one does not belong and to which one does not feel loyalty. Outer controls - According to control theory, individuals who encourage people not to stray into deviance. Pastoral society - A society that relies on the domestication and breeding of animals for food. Patrilocality - A social custom in which married couples live in the home of the husband’s family. Peer group - A social group in which members are usually the same age and have interests and social position in common. Personal space - The area immediately around one’s body that one can claim as one’s own. Pluralistic society - A society composed of many different kinds of people. Polyandry - Marriage between one woman and more than one man. Polygamy - Marriage between one man and more than one woman. Polytheism - Belief in many deities. Positive sanction - A socially constructed expression of approval. Postindustrial society - A society that features an economy based on services and technology, not production. Poverty level - An estimate set by the federal government of the minimum income that a family of four needs to survive. Power - According to Weber, the ability to achieve ends even in the face of resistance. Power elite - A term coined by C. Wright Mills that refers to his theory that the United States is actually run by a small group representing the most wealthy, powerful, and influential people in business, government, and the military. Primary deviance - According to Lemert, a deviant act that elicits little or no reaction from others. Primary group - A group in which there is frequent face-to-face contact, little task orientation, and emotional intimacy among members. Primary socialization - The learning that we experience from the people who raise us. Primogeniture - A law stipulating that only a first-born son could inherit his father’s wealth. Proletariat - Karl Marx’s term for the working masses. Props - The things used to decorate a setting, according to Goffman’s theory of impression management. Props also include manner of dress. Rational-legal authority - Authority that rests on rules and laws, according to Weber’s power theory. Rationalization of society - Weber’s theory that bureaucracies would gain increasing power over modern life, eventually governing almost every aspect of society. Rebels - According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who reject both cultural goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them, but who replace them with goals and means of their own. Recidivism - The tendency of convicted criminals to repeat offenses. Reference group - The group to whom we compare ourselves for purposes of self-evaluation. Reincarnation - The belief that while the physical body dies, the soul of a person is immortal and goes on to be reborn into another body. Religion - The institution responsible for answering people’s larger questions and for explaining the seemingly inexplicable. Resocialization - The learning of new norms and values. Retreatists - According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who reject cultural goals as well as the institutionalized means of achieving them. Revolution - A violent overthrow of the government by its citizens. Ritualists - According to Robert Merton’s theory of goals and means, those who reject cultural goals but accept the institutionalized means of achieving them. Role - A set of norms, values, and personality characteristics expected of a person based on the setting he or she is in. Role conflict - The conflict that can result from the competing demands of two or more roles. Sanction - A socially constructed expression of approval or disapproval. Secondary deviance - According to Lemert, repeated deviant behavior that is brought on by other people’s negative reactions to the original act of deviance. Secondary group - A group in which there is infrequent or short-term contact, little task orientation, and no emotional intimacy among members. Sect - A religious group that sets itself apart from society as a whole. Self - The part of a person’s personality consisting of self-awareness and self-image. Setting - The place where interaction takes place. According to Goffman, it is one of the sign vehicles we use to present ourselves to others, along with manner of interacting and appearance. Sign vehicles - Goffman’s term for the mechanisms we use to present ourselves to others. Sign vehicles consist of setting, appearance, and manner of interacting. Significant other - According to Charles Horton Cooley, a person in our lives whose opinions matter to us and who is in a position to influence our thinking. Skilled worker - A worker who is literate and has experience and expertise in specific areas of production or on specific kinds of machines. Slavery - A system of stratification in which one person owns another, usually for economic gain. Social control - The ways a society devises to encourage conformity to norms. Social construction of reality - A theory suggesting that the way in which we present ourselves is shaped by our life experiences, as well as by our interactions with others. Social group - Two or more people who interact and identify with each other. Social integration - The degree to which an individual feels connected to the other people in his or her group or community. Social mobility - Movement up or down the social hierarchy. Society’s rewards - The things a society holds in high esteem, such as wealth, power, and prestige. Socialism - A system under which resources and means of production are owned by the society as a whole, rights to private property are limited, the good of the whole society is stressed more than individual profit, and the government maintains control of the economy. Socialization - The process whereby we learn to become competent members of a group. Society - A collection of people with territory, interaction, and a culture. Socioeconomic status (SES) - A calculation based on a complex formula that takes into account education, occupation, and income. Spoiled identity - Goffman’s term for an identity that has been permanently ruined because of a severe stigma. State capitalism - A system under which resources and means of production are privately owned but closely monitored and regulated by the government. Status - The position that a person occupies in a particular setting. Status inconsistency - Any inconsistency between various statuses. Status set - The collection of all of our different statuses, from every setting in which we are a member. Status symbol - A sign or symbol that we wear or carry that represents a particular status. Stereotype - An assumption we make about a person or a group, often on the basis of incorrect or incomplete information. Stigma - Goffman’s term for a trait that we possess that causes us to lose prestige in the eyes of others. Strain theory - Robert Merton’s theory that posits that people experience strain and frustration when they are prevented from achieving culturally approved goals through institutionalized means. Stratification - A societal system in which there is an unequal distribution of society’s rewards and in which people are arranged hierarchically into layers according to how many of society’s rewards they possess. Structural functionalist theory - A sociological view of society as a complex unit made up of interrelated parts. Sociologists who apply this theory study social structure and social function. Subculture - A group that espouses a way of living that is different from that of the dominant culture. Superego - According to Freud, the part of the mind that encourages conformity to societal norms and values. It is also called the conscience. Symbolic interactionist perspective - A sociological framework that views society as a product of the everyday social interactions of individuals. Taboo - A norm so strongly held by a society that its violation brings extreme disgust. Terrorism - A politically motivated violent attack on civilians by an individual or group. Thomas Theorem - The theory espousing sociologist W. I. Thomas’s idea that “if a person perceives a situation as real, it is real in its consequences.” Total institution - According to Erving Goffman, a highly standardized institution in which all the residents’ actions are determined and monitored by authority figures. Totalitarianism - A political system under which the government maintains tight control over nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives. Traditional authority - Authority that rests on well-established cultural patterns, according to Weber’s power theory. Triad - According to Georg Simmel, a group composed of three people. Upper class - The highest social group, consisting of people with inherited wealth and a recognizable family name. Urbanization - The process by which the majority of a population comes to live within commuting distance of a major city. Value - A culturally approved belief about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. Victimless crime - Crimes in which laws are violated but there is no identifiable victim. Voluntary association - A group we choose to join, in which members are united by the pursuit of a common goal. War - Armed conflict between nations or societies. Welfare capitalism - A system that features a market-based economy coupled with an extensive social welfare system that includes free health care and education for all citizens. White collar - Middle-class workers; so called because of the tendency of middle-class men to wear white shirts to work. White-collar crime - Nonviolent crime committed by the capitalist class during the course of their occupations. Working class - The class composed of people who sell their labor to a higher class. They may have had vocational or technical training and have jobs such as electrician or factory worker. Working poor - The class composed of people whose work leaves them vulnerable to falling below the poverty level. World system theory - Wallerstein’s theory that as societies industrialized, capitalism became the dominant economic system, leading to the globalization of capitalism.

Psychology

Sociology

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