How does the acquisition of skill affect performance - NOTE

Stages of skill acquisition:-Cognitive:-first stage-basic understanding of skill-learner can't usually identify their many errors-learner must see, feel and experience movement-exploratory stage-demonstrations are essential-identifies subroutines -slow learning & inefficient movement-support needed-Associative:-second stage /practice stage-practice stage-learner can detect most errors but there aren't many-kinaesthetic sense developing-demonstrations can be necessary-emphasis on temporal patterning; knows subroutines-moderate learning speed & efficient movement-practice of set patterns in controlled environment-Autonomous:-third stage /advanced stage-performer detects and corrects their very few errors-performer must adapt to movements and high pressure situations-movements rehearsed under different conditions-demonstrations only to refine specifics-temporal and sequential patterning of subroutines is automatic-fast & efficient-manipulation of environment 

Characteristics of the learner:The speed and ease in which an individual learns depends on the following factors:-Personality:-D: an individual's characteristic way of behaving -Traits (recognisable/observable features) affect learning ability due to consistency, reliability, motivation, ability to express emotion and willingness to learn. -Heredity:-D: genetic characteristics inherited-the environment determines if the individual can reach set limits determined by heredity-heredity characteristics that affect performance:   -percentage of fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibres  -somatotype: (a person's body type/shape). Linearity (like lean, best for high jumpers etc), muscularity (muscly build, for weight lifters etc), roundness (best for sitting on couch).   -gender (hormones allows males gain muscle easier)  -height  -conceptual ability (visualisation helps)-Prior experience:-experience sets a foundation for easier learning-transfer of learning-lateral transfer: learning from experience of a similar skill (backhand tennis to back hand in table-tennis)-vertical transfer: mastering simpler skills which adds to a complex skill (learning the dolphin kick before the butterfly)-Ability:-D: the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement/routine-acuity (sharpness) assists learners in grasping concepts and taking up new skills easier-provides advantages through problem solving, intelligence, balance, coordination-Confidence:-D: a firm belief in one's own ability -develops from success in learning situations -confident learners help others and themselves-they take risks and take on challenges -coaches must structure their learning process so that confidence is gained

The learning environment-The environment is anything external of the learner that may have a positive or negative affect on the learning process.-Nature of the skill:   -open/closed: Open -skills performed in an environment that is changing and unpredictable         -makes tasks more difficult as the learner must adapt to changes through manipulation of technique         -can cause frustration, distraction and indecision Closed -skills performed in a stable and predicable environment            -easier due to less distractions Activities are not always 100% open or closed; so a continuum is appropriate when judging the nature of the skill.   -gross/fine:Gross motor skills: -require the use of large muscle groups                             -usually found in team/competitive/endurance activitiesFine motor skills: -require the use of small muscle groups                          -found in activities with little movement (catching a ball/darts)Activities are not always either based on just gross/fine; so a continuum is appropriate when judging the nature of the skill.   -discrete/serial/continuous:Discrete: -distinct beginning and end              -e.g. throwing a ball; starts with putting your arm back and aiming, and ends with a jolting motion forwardSerial: -a sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill          -e.g. making a kick; firstly putting the ball on the matt, getting up, taking steps back, running up and (lastly) kicking the ballContinuous: -have no distinct beginning or end                  -e.g. swimming   -self paced/externally paced:Self-pased: movements for which the performer determines the timing and speed of execution; e.g. kicking a ball between postsExternally-paced: movements which an external source controls the timing; e.g. rhythmic gymnastics-The performance elements: Teaching and coaching strategies that emphasise the game centred approach (focusing on the game as a whole, instead of just skills. Integrated thinking and learning,) provide the opportunity to develop performance elements. Coaches must take advantages of 'breaks' to use this.   -decision making:-best developed through making decisions in performance-like situations-the rules, conditions and team strategies must considered -productive decision making is achieved through:   -observation (of demonstrations)  -questioning  -whole, part and whole-part approach (a gradual learning of the game strategy by breaking it down   -variation (in scenarios for possible outcomes)  -creativity (thinking of options in groups)    -strategic and tactical development:-what we play, where we should be and when and what to do-is built from:   -technical efficiency (correct technique and consistency)  -understanding (prior to game)  -skill execution-tactical awareness- taking opportunities against an opponents. This is developed through match-like situations where players identify situations, see options and make decisions -Practice method:   -massed/distributed:Massed: -a continuous practice session, with more time practicing than resting             -this is best for highly motivated people, new learners and people who aren't available to train oftenDistributed: -(spaced practice) involves practicing for shorter time than what is spent on alternate activities or resting                 -works best for people who lack interest, find the task difficult or tiring, find discomfort in performing the task for too long   -whole/part:Learners find it difficult performing a set of movements while also focusing on the smaller actions. So coaches teach using part, whole or both methodsWhole: -when a skill is practiced in its entirety Part: -when a skill is broken down into smaller components and each discrete skill is practiced separately; e.g. teaching to dribble, pass and shoot in basketball        -most suitable for complex and new skillsSome coaches teach whole, part then whole again; although techniques vary. -Feedback: -D: information given to a learner about the result of their performance.-it is essential because it:     -offers tips/different ways to perform unsuccessful movements     -offers slight modifications to improve performance     -encourages repetition if successful -input > process (feedback) > output    -internal/external:Internal: -feeling and sensory information about the action (such as seeing a ball and hearing a bounce) that is experienced during the performance            -proprioceptive mechanisms (sense) eventually develop a kinaesthetic sense which helps detect errorExternal: -comes from external sources such as coaches, crowds, videos and race results              -augmented feedback isn't given immediately after performance but some time after to prove a point or show progress; e.g. watching a video   -concurrent/delayed:Concurrent: -received during performance                  -is relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism                  -someone doing a headstand must constantly rely on feedback to maintain balanceDelayed: -received after performance              -the success of shooting a basketball is determined after the throw,if the ball goes through the hoopThe two varieties of feedback:   -knowledge of results:-information about the outcome of a movement -how successful -always from external sources-e.g. time run in  a 5km race   -knowledge of performance:-information about the pattern of the movement during execution-can be from external sources or internal-e.g. coaches yelling at MMA fighters during performance/ how the performer thinks they performed based on their knowledge and opinion.Feedback works best when positive and immediate. Reinforcing success is encouraged. Frustration is caused when the coach and athlete have contrasting views on how the movement should be carried out; the performer may think of success while their coach strives for more improvement. 

Assessment of skill and performance:Assessments must be made of the effectiveness of method used in terms of improvement of performance.-Characteristics of skilled performers:   -kinaesthetic sense: -the system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attachments-their body adapting and remembering how to perform the skill almost automatically without thought-comes as a result of practice   -anticipation:-skilled performers better predict, act accordingly and respond quickly with better execution of skills-essential in open type activities   -consistency:-skilled performers perform more consistently (for longer durations)   -technique:-the practice method applied-good technique is beneficial as it:    -is most effective   -uses less effort   -makes the performer less susceptible to injury   -only uses certain muscles   -has a higher success rate   -is aesthetically pleasing Correct/good technique is easily observed. -Objective and subjective performance measures:(Suitable for a continuum as there may be mixes of both measurements)Subjective: -a judgement of performance quality, based on feelings, impressions and opinions rather than a measurement system                  -measurements like timers/measurement tapes make the judgement more credible                  -less accurate than objective                  -judges may disagree due to varying opinions on the level of difficulty of the performance                  -e.g. fencing/diving Objective: -the extent to which a measure/test is independent of the observer                 -judges judge based on the same criteria                -e.g. the time of a run is agreed upon all judges-Observations can be made more credible by:   -checklists (with elements of style, technical correctness)  -measurement systems (instruments)  -establishing criteria (so it is agreed upon by all judges)  -rating scales (degree of difficulty)-e.g. Basketball: -(subjective measurement) the offence scored as a result of poor defence                         -(objective measurement) the throw for the goal went through the basket     Gymnastics: -(subjective) the routine lacked creativity                        -(objective) the routine scored 7.0-Validity and reliability of tests:Validity: -the honesty of the test- the degree to which it measures what it is designed to            -establishing validity is about determining the strength of the relationship between a performance component and a test designed to assist that component             -techniques used to enhance validity:               -judgements about the test items              -using validated and similar tests to compare it to              -single item tests test single skills, whereas a range of tests are needed to test hockey; where agility, dribbling and passing skills are all assessedReliability: -the degree of consistency of a test -the ability of the test and tester to produce the same result numerous times                -the conditions of the test must remain the sameValidity has more to do with accuracy, while reliability has more to do with precision.-Personal versus prescribed judging criteria:Personal: -preconceived ideas/expectations as well as emotions, opinions and even bias that individuals have when judging               -e.g. used by coaches when selecting a football team or by spectators when watching a dance               -better suited for judging the appreciation of a performance rather than an official result of a performance               -appraisal (a judgement about the quality of something or somebody) is subjective in top level competition such as gymnastic/dance/divingPrescribed: -set criteria with rules etc                 -is applied to standardise the judgement/interpretation                  -the more competent the criteria, the more competent the judges and the more objective the appraisal 

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