Summary

ADVANCED ENVELOPESIntelligent FacadesThe term 'Blue Technology' is the understanding of fundamental physics principles applied in a manner that enables the building environmental system and the facade to be designed as an integrated, synergetic system rather than individual components to allow inhabitants and users to live in a comfortable indoor space while participating actively in preserving our environment. Solar Control Glass Glass can control the wavelength & % of radiation transmitted or absorbed by the glass.  Coatings, originally developed by Pilkington in 1980s, can be applied to glass modify the solar control properties. Multi-layer coatings using different materials are needed for the highest optical performance.  Computer modelling means optical properties of coatings can be predicted, so minimal trials are required before full scale production. Interactive Facades - Glass Block Facades Sports hall in Aurillac, France rapped in 12m high robust concrete screens.  25,000 pyramidal glass blocks set into the concrete screens, causing glimmering effects & shadows in the day and intensifies projected colour schemes at night.  At night the glass surfaces intensify the coloured lighting scheme projected on the inner surface of the walls.  SmartSlab Cladding system with lighting components and controls for animated displays. The outer skin is tough to withstand most vandalism and graffiti and dirt can be washed off easily. Kalwall Nanogel Nanogel is a translucent aerogel which is made of 5% solid and 95% air, making it the lightest solid in the world. Aerogel has extremely small pores, making it one of the best thermal insulators in the world. Intelligent RoofsFabric Roof Materials PVC-coated polyester Silicon-coated glassfibre (SCG) Teflon-coated glassfibre (PTFE) Inflatable RoofsHeathrow's National Express Coach Station - roof is very lightweight so it needs minimal foundation & can be installed overnight.ETFE Membranes Case Study - Garden of Eden, Cornwall. Several layers with low pressure between layers creates a high degree of thermal insulation.  Life expectancy is 20+ years. Resistant to UV rays and hailstorms. Smooth surface assists self-cleaning. Transparency is 50-96%. Light diffusion & UV transmission can be adjusted to suit usage. Flame retardant when treated and is self-extinguising when melted.  Building Integrated Photovoltaic Systems Solarcentury PV Roof Tiles & Roof Panels Thin Films - A flexible, thin-film amorphous-silicon photovoltaic cell with a self-adhesive underside which follows the shape of the roof structure. Sliding Glass PV Facade - Austrian firm launched an aluminium framed glass sliding panel designed to provide solar shading & power with film PVs incorporated. Case Study - University of Ulster utilised PV wall panels Case Study - Carillion Energy Services Carillion bought Eaga in April with plans to install PV panels on 30,000 homes. Seven months laters, UK Government cut Feed-In Tariffs in half from 43p to 21p per kWh. All 4,500 employees of Carillion Energy Services were given 90 days notice that their jobs were at risk.  What Can Go Wrong with PVs? Inverter failure Power output of cells degrades over time Panels delaminate Electrical connections corrode Encapsulant degrades, resulting in reduced power.  AIR RIGHTSWhat are Air Rights? The air over someone else's property. Increasing land values and planning/policy guidance is encouraging developers to come up with novel ways of exploiting air rights over existing structures. Petrol Company Texaco has revealed plans to develop retail, housing and offices above its service stations. Projects That Have Utilised Space Above Areas Bridges over water Over rail stations, roads and other buildings. 'Under' things Bridges Over Water Case StudiesLondon Bridge Stone bridge designed by Peter de Colechurch in 1176 held 140 buildings with some reaching 3 storeys. The ban on thatch due to Great Fire mean heavier roof tiles were used which the bridge couldn't support & had to be demolished. London Mayor seeks new bridge in the same style between Waterloo and Blackfriars with the cost estimated at £80 million. Garden Bridge, LondonPlanned pedestrian bridge over the River Thames which has received a £30 million seal of approval from the Government.Peabody Trust Bridge - River Lea Housing association Peabody Trust is developing an idea to build 92 homes on a bridge spanning the River Lea. Could be 7-10 storeys tall and provide a river crossing for pedestrians, cyclists and buses. The idea could also be applied to structures over roads and railway lines. Developments Over Rail Stations Air rights development over railway stations is largely an American invention which London have subsequently utilised.  Developing the air rights above train stations creates many challenges for project teams in terms of logistics, planning and design. Tesco Supermarket - Gerrards Cross Newly built tunnel the store was to sit on collapsed during first construction. 30m of the 320 precast, reinforced concrete tunnel collapsed primarily due to the placing of infill around the arch. Cannon Place - London 8 Storey office block above London's Cannon Street station. Half of the site is classed as a scheduled ancient monument. Main issue was trying to keep the station and facilities open while 32,000 passengers a day passed through it. Only a few areas where a new structure could penetrate down through the station. Solution was to adopt a technique used for building bridges where the northern and southern strips were cantilevered off the office to balance one off the other to prevent the need for supports down into the station.  Birmingham New Street UK's first major station air-rights development now in a major overhaul. No agreement has been made for future access to refurb/upgrade the station. Underground Case StudiesSydney Aspire want to excavate a site to create a 'super-pit' with a gross floor area of 1.2Mm2. The pit would house a 5 storey deep development platform to support office towers, service centres & a commuter & residential population exceeding 300,000 people. Amsterdam Plans for £1.1billion underground city in Amsterdam by 2018 to address the lack of space in the city. Will be 1million m2, with six levels of underground retail, leisure & parking developments. Method is to temporarily pump out the canals, create a new canal bed, refill the canals and work underneath. London - Rise of the Iceberg Home The creation of extensive 3-4 storey basements for swimming pools, spas and cinemas....is now becoming popular in the countryside, not just areas like Chelsea and Kensington. A lot of planning applications get through by obtaining specialist advice on the matter.  Chelsea and Kensington have had 800 planning applications for basements in the past 5 years, with only 10% rejected. Estimated that a basement can add 15-20% to the value of a house. New planning rules are restricting wealthy owners from construction basement developments of more than 1 storey. There is now a ban on any basements beneath gardens of listed properties.

BUILDING TALL"Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves" (Tower of Babel, Genesis 11).History of Building Tall in London High-rise buildings had been built as early as 1951 with 1963 signifying the year when they started to be built extensively.  It's a common view that skyscrapers built in this period were poorly designed and scar the capital's landscape. Projects such as the Gherkin and the Shard are justified based upon their exceptional design, others (Vauxhall Tower) are not. There is not strategic, coordinated vision of what London wants it's skyline to be like. Towers are being built in an ad-hoc fashion with no though to their impact on the city's character. Millbank Tower in Pimlico contributes to this lack of vision and set a precedence for building high-rises along the Thames. The Shell Centre in Southbank is London's first symbolic skyscraper as it was the first to exceed the 99m height of the Houses of Parliaments Victoria Tower which was the capital's unofficial height limit for over a century. This paved the way for the continuous scramble of the skies that's defined London's skyline every since. Peculiarities of London London has protected views (e.g. St. Paul's) which heavily influences the location & design of tall buildings in London. It is argued that properly designed & sited tall buildings can be an asset to an urban landscape but some dominate & destroy the remote feeling of royal parks and/or compete with national monuments (e.g. New Zealand House, West End) Legacies of Tall Buildings in London Millbank Tower, Pimlico: Completed 1963 - Legacy: tall buildings on the river (e.g. The Shard, Nine Elms) Shell Centre, Southbank: Opened 1963 - Legacy: skyscraper corporate HQs (e.g. Gherkin, Natwest Tower) Centre Point, Soho: Office - Legacy: speculative commercial high-rise (e.g. One Canada Square, Pinnacle) Balfron Tower, Bow: Residential - Legacy: residential tower blocks near arterial/elevated roads Portland House, Victoria - Legacy: tall buildings at transport interchanges. London Hilton, Mayfair: Completed 1963 - Legacy: sparked damaging trend of building tall on edge of Hyde Park. New Zealand House, West End: Opened 1963 - Legacy - tall buildings in historic contexts. Pinnacle Tower - London The 7 floors of concrete core of London's £1 billion Pinnacle tower could be knocked down and re-built from scratch. Proposal came following a review to make it more viable and cost efficient in the current market. The 63 storey tower would be London's tallest tower if built but has laid dormant due to funding issues. Designing Tall Buildings in London The context of the building is important. Tall buildings must be exceptionally designed and sensitively located with a planning mechanism that ensures this is delivered. Factors Affecting Vulnerability to Progressive Collapse The redundancy of the structure and available alternative load paths. The retention of structural integrity in fire. The strength, ductility and energy absorption capacity of the structure. Impact of World Trade Centre on Future of Tall Building September 11th, 2001 in New York. Must be assumed the future events may be more severe and different extreme events than those that have occurred to date. Limitation to damage from all eventualities has to be the aim. Decisions must be made the owners, operators, designers and building managers based upon an understanding of all issues. Coordination between design, building management and relationships with emergency services are required to maximise the protection of building occupants.  Methods to Prevent Progressive Collapse Increase the capability of the structure to bridge over damaged parts by providing alternative load paths. Use robust, ductile and energy absorbing structural elements. Provide robust, resilient and durable passive and active fire protection. Mitigate spread of smoke and design building to survive a complete 'burn out' of it's contents. Provide robust and adequately sized escape routes with back-up power/lighting and prevent ingress of smoke. Implement and trial evacuation strategies and emergency responses at regular intervals For cladding/glazing, use laminated or toughened glass with fixings designed to resists potential explosion loading/impact/fire Provide security against unauthorised entry and incident prevention measures such as barriers to protect the base of the building. Use 3rd part inspection, testing and certification during design and construction to minimise quality risks. COMPLEX GLOBAL PROJECTS - KARACHAGANAK EXPANSION PROJECTWhat is the Project? The Karachaganak Field Expansion Project (KEP), Kazakhstan. One of the largest gas condensate fields in the world. Increase gas re-injection to aid maintaining reservoir pressure Extend oil production, maximise liquids recovery & optimise future liquids take-off.  Execution Strategy KEP will be a multi-stage development to reduce execution risk & create a feasible and manageable work programme.  With discrete independent projects and specific scopes and objectives for each stage. Key Challenges of the ProjectLocation, climate & complexity of the systems. Risks of Mega Projects Megaprojects are complex and fragile. Clear project definition at early stages of project is required.  Technical & organisational complexity required.  Must have right resources and an experience project team.  Focus on lowest cost rather than value. Cost and schedule targets are a key success factor which the industry's performance in is declining.  Lack of experienced staff and skilled labour.  Industry is stretched with increased number of mega-projects.  Long equipment and material lead in times.  Stakeholder attention.  CONCRETE INNOVATIONSBendable Concrete Formally known as Engineered Cementitous Composites (ECC) Developed in 2000 by Michigan University. It's tensile ductility reduces cracking & fracture problems. 300 times more deformable in direct tension than conventional concrete. Tensile strain capacity of 3-5% compared with 0.1% of conventional concrete. Can self-heal upon cracking. Can be used with common construction equipment.  Under shear tension failure mode it's loading capacity is increased by 50% and it's ultimate deformation by 200%. Under shear compression failure mode it's load capacity increases by 50% and it's ultimate deformation remains the same. Case Study - Mitaka Dam, Japan Severely damaged 60 year old structure. Evidence of cracking, spalling & water leakage. Successfully repaired in 2003 using a 20mm layer of ECC sprayed onto surface.  Concrete Canvas Won material of the year 2009. Once the cloth shelter is erected, the hardening process is started by adding water. Originally designed for shelters, the British Army now use it to create fortified positions. Pervious Concrete High porosity concrete created by a high void content. Allows water from rain to pass through.  Reduces run-off and allows groundwater recharge, often used in parking areas, residential streets & walkways. Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) Developed in late 1980s in Japan and increasingly used in EU.  Does not require vibration for placing & compaction as it is able to flow & compact under it's own weight whilst achieving the same engineering properties as traditional vibrated concrete. Suitable for many applications: precast elements, basements, cladding, column encasement, top-down construc Advantages of SCC Noise eliminated Healthier and safer working environment Reduced demand for skilled labour Faster placing time Improved surface finish Reduction in making good costs Disadvantages of SCC More expensive - approximately £10-23/m3 More cement & special mix required.  Requires different handling & more tests on site.  Improved formwork quality & increased pressures. Economic Applications for SCC Precast elements Exposed walls and columns Watertight basements Wall cladding Dense reinforcement Column encasement (e.g. Albion Wharf) Top-down construction Other Concrete Innovations Termodeck - Precast cement slabs with holes through the centre to promote passive ventilation. Holocore Slabs - Can integrate services in the slabs (e.g. HVAC services) Pre-assembled concrete block walls. Lightweight slabs (cobiax biaxial flat slabs - 35% weight reduction) Insulated concrete formwork Nudura - Claimed to be 6-7 times faster than traditional concrete wall construction.  Insulated Concrete Formwork (ICF) - Formwork is built using large, hollow polystyrene blocks which are filled with concrete & reinforcing bar as the project progresses, with the polystyrene remaining in place as an insulating layer to a completed structure. Extensia - Reduced thickness industrial concrete floors (225mm thick to 175mm) without the need for joints & 20% carbon saving.

What is Additive Manufacturing (AM)? A technique for producing prototypes in the automative/aeronautics industry. Eliminates the need for tools, speeds up product development, reduces costs & can achieve complex geometry in parts AM systems selectively solidify powders or liquids layer by layer OR deposit material from a nozzle layer by layer. Methods of Additive Manufacturing Sintering powdered nylon or metals (SLS) Curing photo-sensitive resin (SLA) Extruding hot plastic (FDM) Applications fo AM Printing bizarre structures and shapes Prototyping applications Complex interfaces Heritage replications Architectural modelling.  Space structures Whole buildings and components (e.g. Loughborough University walls with service voids) Cars Off-World structures Rapid Manufacturing Processes which can produce components by adding or building up material to form an object. Rapid manufacturing does not speed up the manufacturing process but eliminates the need for tools. Traditional methods were either subtractive or formative. Common Rapid Manufacturing Techniques Stereolithography - Flat bed immersed to a depth equivalent to one layer and lasers activate and cause the resin held in the tank to solidify before the bed is lowered again to build the next layer. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) - A narrow bead of hot plastic is selectively deposited where it fuses to the existing structure and hardens as it cools. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) - A laser is used to partially melt successive layers of powder. 3D Printing - Inkjet printer selectively deposits a liquid binder onto a bed of powder which effectively glues it together. What is Freeform Construction?'Processes for integrated building components which demonstrate added value, functionality and capabilities over and above traditional methods of construction'. Factors Affecting Viability of Freeform ConstructionCost - Cheaper using rapid manufacturing methods than traditional build methods.Time - Takes less time and a more continuous process using rapid manufacturing methods.Value Added - Rapid manufacturing can add increased functionality to a product at no extra costs.Note - Processes capable of delivering components large enough for building structures are unlikely to be scaled up versions of Rapid Manufacturing techniques but will need to be developed for specific tasks.What is Contour Crafting (CC)? The first viable rapid manufacturing freeform process capable of delivering large scale components for construction. Has been demonstrated in the labs at University of Southern California. Koshnevis is pushing for the commercialisation of the process in the USA. It can produce full-scale, freeform wall structures that would replace structural concrete blocks. The RM process would enable all the internal pipework, conduits and channels to already be in place within the wall. Benefits: Geometric freedom. Reduction in building materials required. Simplify on-site operations with a reduction in complex trade coordination. Design would be complete upfront, meaning the structure could be designed to be more easily disassembled and recycled. The acoustic, permeability and thermal characteristics can be modified by 'printing' optimised geometry. CROSSRAIL - WHITECHAPEL STATIONBackground to Crossrail £14.8 billion funding. 38 stations with 9 new stations 42km new tunnels with 8 million m3 spoil 140 main works contracts Sprayed concrete lining (SCL) to create the tunnels. Background to Whitechapel Station £120 million integrated station with 3 shafts and 60,000m3 excavation Significant amounts of concrete, reinforcement and structural steelwork. 9no lifts and 3no escalators Challenges of Whitechapel Station Dense urban environment with adjacent infrastructure & properties 3rd party influence.  Significant contract administration Highly informed & established client Work around and modification of existing assets Political concerns Government purse Weather - Risk of wind on cranes, additional hooks used to mitigate. Deliveries - offsite utilised to minimise possible delays. Movement of services. Interim stations. Access/egress Speed of information to maintain informed clients & stakeholders.  Factors to Consider Political - Section 106 requirements, approval conditions, labour & resources, training & safety. Social - Safety, impact on local areas, responsible procurement, labour sourcing & needs Economic - Choice of contract, cost escalation, taxation, Government sponsored projects. Technical - Engineering constraints, works near existing structures, keeping assets operational, access & egress Legal - Land issues, compulsory purchases, Transport & Works Act, licensing agreements (oversailing...) Environmental - Noise, dust, light, TPOs, species, vehicle movements... Benefits of Whitechapel Station ProjectEnvironmental Close to 100% of construction & demolition waste recycled. 80% of non-exempt Crossrail construction equipment has reduced harmful emissions. Economic 97% of Crossrail related contracts were won by UK companies 3 in 5 contracts were won by businesses outside London. Social 283 apprentices working on Crossrail On track to meet target of 400 apprentices over lifetime of the project. Regeneration New rail link is a catalyst for regeneration. Drives new investment and growth. Increases in both residential & commercial values near stations. 

DESIGNING FOR ADAPTABILITY What is Adaptability? The capacity for a building to accommodate effectively the evolving demands of its context, thus maximising its value through life. "The ability to respond to change" The excess of definitions on adaptability has created confusion. Advantages of Adaptability Easy to make changes Cheaper to make changes Easy to sell Fewer vacancies/rental voids Less disruption to users Reduction in material waste Protect the asset Good design/planning Uncertainty about future Long-term ownership Previous experiences Types of Adaptability Adjustable - Changing task Versatile - Change in space.  Re-fittable - Change of performance. Convertible - Change of function Scalable - Change size Movable - Change location How to Design for Adaptability Challenge convention Reduce complexity Use simple, interchangeable components Limit interactions between components Use reversible physical connections. Maintain accurate design/construction records. Use modular coordination. Limit the size & weight of components. Minimise the number of parts/reduce complexity.  Barriers to Adaptability Lack of demand and future market certainty. Additional costs Compromises first use. Lack of cost and performance data. No legal obligations enforcing it. Other considerations take priority.  Valuation practices remove it. Discounting of future costs. Disconnect between client and property. Case Study - Supermarket to Low Energy Office £4 million refurbishment of disused supermarket building into sustainable council offices for Hampshire County. Incorporates wind towers and roof lights to allow natural ventilation & maintains existing structure to minimise environmental impact. Aims to achieve an 'B' EPC Rating. Exemplifies how a neglected building can be adapted into a cost-effective and imaginative space.  OFFSITE CONSTRUCTIONWhat is Offsite Construction? The manufacture & pre-assembly offsite before transporting and installing on site (optimal use of manufacturing process) The nature and scope of the work will dictate whether offsite construction is suitable. Prefabrication requires more time and effort at the early stages of a project. Increasing interest to use to meet the growing requirements of the education, health and housing sector in the UK.  Government is encouraging MMC and says it can achieve 'a step change in the construction industry to produce the quantity and quality of housing we need' (increase from 175,000/year to 230,000/year) It is vital to choose a competent, experienced specialist with appropriate management and quality control procedures in place.  Currently 30 house building factories in the UK capable of producing 30,000 homes per year.  It costs over £10 million to build an MMC factory and train staff. What are the Levels of Offsite? Level 1: Sub-Assemblies: small-scale elements that are always constructed offsite (i.e. subassemblies) Level 2: Non-Volumetric: pre-assembled units that do not create useable space. (i.e. pre-assemblies: timber systems - SIPS; M&E units, roof cassettes, flat-pack buildings...) Level 3: Volumetric: pre-assembled factory finished units which create useable space & are installed within or onto a building (i.e. pre-assemblies: plantrooms, toilet pods) Level 4: Whole Buildings: volumetric units that make up the actual building. (i.e. whole-buildings - fully finished: Heathrow Control Tower) Transportation Requirements for Offsite Modules Length Over 30m & Width over 6.1m - must provide 8 weeks notice to Highways Authority, road & bridge authorities & Police Length 18.75m - 30m - must provide 2 days notice to Police.  Width 5-6.1m - must provide Highways Authority with 10 days notice & the Police with 2 days notice. Width 3-5m - must provide Police with 2 days notice.  Multi-Storey Offsite Construction Concrete volumetric system for multi-storey buildings up to 20 storeys in height. Concrete is the most viable material for strength and fire safety reasons. Modules are constructed from lightweight concrete panels. A fitted out pod weights approximately 30 tonnes. Time on site is reduced by up to 80% compared with traditional techniques. Company is waiting to find a manufacture to license the technology to build a prototype to prove it works in reality. Biggest barrier is convincing a company to take it on board and bring the product to market. Offsite Manufacture of M&E Modules 15% faster than traditional. Cost neutral outcome at worst. 60-75% first fix M&E now offsite. 70-100% of plant rooms now offsite. No limits to what can be done offsite - only constraints are site logistics, loads and access. 3D CAD & BIM enable projects to be designed with offsite in mind from the outset. Early engagement is required during design & planning.  4 Types of Offsite M&E: Multi-service horizontal modules Vertical structural risers Sectional plant rooms Modular wiring systems How To Get the Most from Offsite Take a holistic approach that utilises the advantage of what offsite construction can offer. Address the challenges of using offsite. Requirements to Realise Benefits of Offsite Construction Team with good previous experience in offsite. Adequate site access and available plant. Sufficient lead in times. Willingness and ability to freeze design when required. Willingness and ability to inspect offsite works. Available manufacturing facility with economical transport distance. Available time for offsite prototype testing. Available early construction/manufacturing expertise.

The Benefits of Offsite ConstructionTime Less time on site Up to 60% faster. Less time spend on commissioning. Reduced management time. Programme certainty with guaranteed deliver dates. Quality Higher quality achieved  Better thermal and sound performance. Products tried and tested in the factory. Greater consistency and more reproducible Greater quality control with 80% less snagging and defects. Ease of maintenance and replacement. Cost Lower preliminary and overhead costs. Improved cash flow. Increased certainty and less risk. Reduced abortive work and defects. Reduced maintenance and whole-life costs. Added value. Less on-site damage and wastage. Productivity Less snagging. More success at interfaces. Less site disruption. Reduced use of wet trades. Better control of site activities. Removes difficult operations onsite.  Products work first time. Work continues independent of local labour issues. Environmental Improved energy efficiency. Up to 80% less energy used on site and 25% less energy in-use.  Up to 90% less waste. Improved waste and recycling management. People Fewer people and up to 60% less traffic movements. Increased and stable long term employment for local communities. People know how to use products. 80% improvement in health & safety with fewer site based accidents. Process Programme is driven centrally. Simplifies construction process. Allows systems to be measured. Can cope with restricted sites. Reduces congested work areas and multi-trade interfaces. Case Study - Tesco & Yorkon Yorkon delivered & installed a 1,430m2 Tesco supermarket in 18 hours to help the community following the Cumbria floods.  Manufactured in less than a week following instruction from Tesco. Open & trading 13 days after starting on site. Offsite Case Study - East Midlands Modular Housing Supersture was +30% more expensive. Substructure -25% Preliminaries -50% Design Fees -50% Overheads -30% Disadvantages of Offsite Construction Higher initial capital costs. Significant lead in times (20 weeks not uncommon for toilet pods) Poor public acceptability and perceived negative image of it's quality. Inflexibility in factories in responding to fluctuating demands. Complex operation. Availability. Design restrictions Cost Project teams often don't understand where the real cost & value of offsite is hidden. IMPREST is a tool that can reveal the hidden costs & value benefits. Can be used as decision support tool, evaluation tool, demonstration of value tool, comparative tool, training tool and cost/value awareness tool. Critical Success Factors for Offsite Make your decisions early Freeze the design at the right time Involve suppliers early - to ensure offsite methods can be incorporated. Design for manufacture & installation - must consider practicalities of sliding pods into position. Concentrate on interfaces Sort logistics Don't accept second best Manufacturing continuity Utilise BIM BIM and Offsite Construction The biggest growth in construction productivity will come from automated offsite activities that BIM will enable.  UK Governments requirement for BIM by 2016 will likely cause an increase in the usage of offsite.  It is argued that factory conditions will enable precisely designed digital objects using BIM to be realised efficiently. Others believe offsite is the missing link for ensuring design intent is translated into a manufactured solution. Others suggest BIM will help designers make an informed decision on the suitability of offsite for a project.  Overall, it was clear that the success of organisations is dependent on how organisations implement BIM & offsite in their model. The majority of research suggests BIM will positively effect offsite. Future of Offsite Government is continuing to push the merits of offsite construction. The intense use of labour in offsite production is creating strong competition from offsite manufacturers in low-wage economies such as Easter Europe. Bulk orders achieve a greater commercial advantage

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