Flashcards
Hazardous Environments - A Level
Flashcards do conjunto (92)
- 1Global Distribution of tectonic hazardsTectonic hazards include earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis.
Most of the world's earthquakes occur in clearly defined linear patterns, generally following plate boundaries.
These linear chains can be in broad belts or narrow belts and are generally found on the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'. - 2Global Distribution of tectonic hazardsBroad belts of earthquakes are associated with subduction zones (where one plate is forced under the other) and collision boundaries.
Narrow belts of earthquakes however are associated with constructive margins, where new material is formed and plates move apart. - 3EarthquakesAn earthquake is a series of vibrations or seismic waves originating from the focus.
A large earthquake can be preceded by smaller tremors known as foreshocks and followed by numerous aftershocks.
Aftershocks can be devastating because they damage buildings that have already been damaged by the main shock - 4EarthquakesEarthquakes occur along plate margins. When plates move past, towards or away from each other the movement is not smooth. Friction causes the plates to get stuck. This causes pressure to build up. Earthquakes occur when this build-up of pressure is released. The point where the earthquake starts is called the focus. Energy waves race rapidly from this point. The point at ground level, above the focus is called the epicentre.
- 5Earthquake termsEpicentre: point on Earth’s surface immediately above the focus
Focus: the sub-surface point where the energy is released and plates slip past each other - 6Types of body wavesPrimary waves: incident compresses rock, causing a band of compression (high density) to move in the direction of the wave. Compression waves, where propagation is parallel to the direction of travel.
Secondary waves: incident compresses rock sideways, causing deformation in one direction and adjacent layers to move in the opposite direction. Transverse waves, where propagation is perpendicular to the direction of travel.
P-waves occur first, followed by S-waves at 60% of the speed. S-waves can only travel through solids due to the elastic properties of needed for a transverse wave. P-waves can cause liquefaction. - 7Types of surface wavesRaleigh waves: similar motion to water waves – the ground ‘rolls’ but particles rotate away from the direction of travel
Love waves: faster than Raleigh waves, propagate across Earth’s surface, particles move side to side, perpendicular to the path of the wave’s energy - 8Mahorovic Discontinuity (Not fully needed but used in some case studies)The boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle. The velocity of a seismic wave is related to the density of the material it is moving through and slower waves were travelling from the focus of the earthquake through the upper layer of the crust whereas faster waves accelerated due to a higher density material being present.
- 9Shadow Zones (Not fully needed but used in some case studies)An area between 105 degrees and 142 degrees from the source of the earthquake where shock waves can not be detected.
- 10Richter ScaleThe strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake, is measured using the Richter Scale. This is a logarithmic scale. So, for example, a magnitude 6 earthquake is 10 times more powerful than a magnitude 5 earthquake and 100 times more powerful than one measuring 4. There is no upper limit to this scale.
- 11Mercalli ScaleThis scale goes from 1-12 in Roman Numerals. It measures the power and effects of earthquakes, based on what is observed.
I: Most people wouldn't feel the earthquake
V: Most people would feel it and windows would break.
XII: Everything would be destroyed - buildings, bridges, railways. The ground would move in waves. - 12Comparison of scales - Richter ScaleMeasures: The energy released by the earthquake.
Measuring Tool: Seismograph
Calculate: Base-10 logarithmic scale
Scale: From 2.0 to 10.0+
Consistency: Varies at different distances from the epicentre.
Problems: Doesn't take damage into account - 13Comparison of Scales - Mercalli ScaleMeasures: Effect caused by earthquake
Measuring Tool: Observation
Calculation: Quantified from observation of effect on earth's surface and human objects
Scale: I to XII
Consistency: Varies depending on distance from epicenter
Problems: Speculative - 14Factors affecting earthquake damage: Strength and depth of earthquakeStrength and depth of earthquake + Number of aftershocks: the stronger the earthquake the more damage it can do. For example, an earthquake of 5.0 on the Richter scale is 100x more powerful than one of 4.0; the more aftershocks there are the greater the damage that Is done. Earthquakes that occur close to the surface (shallow-focus earthquakes) potentially should do more damage than deep-focus earthquakes as more of the energy of the latter is absorbed by overlying rocks.
- 15Factors affecting earthquake damage: Population DensityPopulation density: If an earthquake hits an area of high population density such as the Tokyo region of Japan, could inflict far more damage than one that hits an area of low Population and building density.
- 16Factors affecting earthquake damage: Building typeType of buildings: MEDCs generally have better quality buildings, more emergency services and funds to recover from disasters. People in MEDCs are more likely to have insurance coverage than those in LEDCs and are better educated as to how to respond to such events.
- 17Factors affecting earthquake damage: Time of dayTime of day: An earthquake during a busy time, such as rush hour, may cause more deaths than one at a quiet time. Industrial and commercial areas have fewer people on them on Sundays, and homes have more people in them at night.
- 18Factors affecting earthquake damage: Distance from epicentreDistance from the epicentre: The closer a place is to the epicentre of the earthquake the greater the damage that is done.
- 19Factors affecting earthquake damage: Type of rock and sedimentsType of rooks and sediments: loose materials may act like liquid when shaken, a process known as liquefaction; solid rock is much safer and buildings should be built on flat areas formed of solid rock.
- 20Factors affecting earthquake damage: Secondary HazardsSecondary hazards: an earthquake may cause mudslides and tsunamis and fires, also contaminated water, and disease. hunger and hypothermia.
- 21Factors affecting earthquake damage: Economic developmentEconomic development: this affects the level of preparedness and effectiveness of emergency response services, access to technology and quality of health services.
- 22Earthquake PreparationMost earthquakes occur with little if any warning. Some places, such as California and Tokyo which have considerable experience of earthquakes have developed earthquake action plans and information programmes to increase public awareness about what to do in an earthquake
- 23Resultant hazards of earthquakesMost problems are associated with damage to buildings, structures and transport systems. The collapse of building structures is the direct cause of many injuries and death but also reduces the effect of emergency services. In some cases, more damage is caused by the aftershocks that follow and they shake weakened structures.
- 24Resultant hazards of earthquakesSome earthquakes involve surface displacement. This may lead to the fracture of gas pipes, as well as causing damage to lines of communication.
Earthquakes may cause other geomorphological hazards such as landslides, liquefaction and tsunamis. - 25Human causes of earthquakes: Disposal of liquid wasteWater that is salty or polluted by chemicals needs to be disposed of in a manner that prevents it from contaminating freshwater sources. Normally by injecting it to deep underground wells.
The injecting of the liquid waste into bedrock lubricates and reactive a series of deep underground faults.
This is seen in Denver Colorado where wastewater being injected in 1962 caused a series of minor earthquakes. From 1962-65 over 700 minor earthquakes were monitored. - 26Human Causes of Earthquakes: Underground Nuclear TestingUnderground nuclear testing has triggered earthquakes in a number of places. In 1968 testing of a series of 1200-tonne bombs in Nevada set off over 30 minor earthquakes in the area over the following three days. The explosion from nuclear testing results in a simultaneous release of plate tension causing earthquakes.
- 27Human causes of earthquakes: Increased crustal loadingEarthquakes can be caused by adding increasing loads on previously stable land surfaces. For example, the weight of water behind large reservoirs can trigger earthquakes.
- 28Ways people deal with earthquakes1. Do nothing and accept the hazard.
2. Adjust to living in a hazardous environment - strengthen your home
3. Leave the area. - 29Ways for preparing for earthquakes1. Better forecasting and warning
2. Improve building design/location
3. Establish emergency procedures - 30Ways to predict and monitor earthquakes1. Small-scale ground surface changes
2. Small-scale uplift of subsidence
3. Ground tilt.
4. Changes in rock stress.
5. Micro-earthquake activity
6. Anomalies in the Earth's magnetic field
7. Changes in electrical resistivity of rocks. - 31VolcanoesA volcano is an opening in the Earth's crust where magma - a mixture of red-hot liquid rock, mineral crystals, rock fragments and dissolved gases from inside the planet erupts onto the surface.
- 32Types of Volcanoes - Reasons for different shapesType of lava: Very hot, runny lava produced by gently sloping shield volcanoes. Thick material produces cone-shaped volcanoes. This may be a result of many eruptions. Composite volcanoes form by lava and pyroclastic flows.
Amount of charge: Cone volcanoes are associated with destructive plate boundaries, whereas shield volcanoes form on constructive boundaries and hotspots. - 33Shield VolcanoesLow with gently sloping sides that are formed from layers of lava.
Eruptions are typically non-explosive but frequent.
Produce fast-flowing lava that can flow for many miles.
Often found on constructive plate boundaries and volcanic hotspots. - 34Composite VolcanoesLayers of ash and lava pile up to create the volcano. Take a long time to form.
Steep-sided, symmetrical cones.
Highly explosive
Contain a central vent or a cluster of vents in a crater at their summit. - 35Cone volcanoes.Acid lava that flows from cone or dome volcanoes is much more viscous than lava which flows from shield volcanoes.
Dome volcanoes have much steeper sides than shield volcanoes as the lava is thick and sticky. It can't flow very far before it cools. - 36Types of lava flow - Aa flowAa flow is a few metres thick. It consists of two distinct zones - an upper rubbly part, and a lower part of solid lava which cools slowly. Aa surfaces are loose jumble or irregularly shaped cindery blocks with sharp sides.
- 37Types of lava flow - Pahoehoe flowLeast viscous of all lavas; rates of advance can be slow. It has a cool surface, with flow underneath the surface. Can be smooth and glossy but may also have cavities; surfaces may also be crumpled with channels.
- 38Volcano activityThe amount of silica makes the difference between volcanoes that erupt continuously and those where eruptions are infrequent but violent.
- 39Volcano activityVolcanoes are found in three states - extinct, dormant and active. An extinct volcano will never erupt again. A dormant volcano has not erupted in 2000 years. An active volcano has erupted recently and is likely to erupt again.
- 40Types of volcanic eruptionsVolcanic eruptions are often thought of as cataclysmic explosions that produce vast quantities of lava, and ash and erupt in a range of different ways during different eruptions and even during different stages in the same eruption.
- 41Types of volcanic eruptions - Plinian Eruptions (Used in 20 markers)Most explosive and violent of volcanic eruptions. Producing a large plume of ash and gas.
Started by highly viscous magma that has high gas content. The gas expands as it emerges through depressurization, propelling pyroclastic material as high as 45km in the air.
Eruptions can last for days and create a sustained and tall eruption plume, which drops a huge amounts of tephra, fallen volcanic material, on surrounding areas.
Can produce extremely fast-moving lava flows that destroy everything in their path. - 42Types of volcanic eruptions - Hawaiian Eruptions (Used in 20 markers)Lava is more basic and basaltic, with low gas pressures and low silica content. Resulting in runny lava.
Not generally explosive or destructive and does not throw huge amounts of tephra or pyroclastic material in the air.
Produce low-viscosity, low-gas-content lava that flows over large areas producing shield volcanoes and lava plateaus.
Can form fire fountains where lava is thrust 50m in the air for many ours. - 43Types of volcanic eruptions - Strombolian Eruptions (Used in 20 markers)The effects are impressive but not particularly dangerous
They eject short bursts of lava 15 to 90 meters in the air. The lava has a fairly high viscosity, so gas pressure builds up before the material can be ejected.
Produces impressive booming sounds, however, eruptions are small.
Lava flows from Strombolian eruptions are not common though they do throw out large quantities of pyroclastic rock.
Commonly marked by a white cloud of steam. - 44Types of volcanic eruptions -Icelandic Eruptions (Used in 20 markers)Characterised by a persistent fissure eruption
Large quantities of basaltic lava build up vast horizontal plains - 45Types of volcanic eruptions - VesuvianEruptions (Used in 20 markers)Characterised by very powerful blasts of gas pushing ash clouds high into the sky.
More violent than Vulcanian eruptions
Lava flows also occur - 46Types of volcanic eruptions - Vulcanian Eruptions (Used in 20 markers)Violent gas explosions blast out plugs of sticky or cooled lava.
Fragments build up into cones of ash and pumice.
Vulcanian eruptions occur when there is very vicious lava which solidifies rapidly after an explosion.
Often the eruption clears a blocked vent and spews large quantities of volcanic ash into the atmosphere. - 47Volcanic hazards - Pyroclastic fallDebris falls from a volcanic cloud, blanketing the ground with a deposit. Can be dangerous as fine ash particles can damage people's lungs. Only a few centimetres thick can also cause a building to collapse due to its weight. Dust and fine particles also cause havoc with global climate patterns.
- 48Volcanic hazards - Pyroclastic flowA pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving current of hot gas and rock, which reaches speeds moving away from a volcano up to 700km/h. The gas can reach temperatures of 1000 degrees. Pyroclastic flows normally hug the ground and travel downhill. Speed depends upon the density of the current, volcanic output rate, and gradient of the slope.
- 49Volcanic hazards - LaharsA combination of heavy rain and unstable ash increases the hazard of lahars. They are extremely dangerous to those living in valleys near a volcano as they can undercut banks causing houses to be destroyed. They can also bury and destroy manmade structures including roads and bridges.
- 50Volcanic strengthThe strength of a volcano is measured by the Volcanic Explosive Index (VEI). This is based on the amount of material ejected in the explosion and the height of the cloud it creates. and the amount of damage caused. Any explosive above level 5 is considered to be very large and violent. VEI 8 refers to a supervolcano.
- 51Predicting Volcanoes1. Seimometeres record swarms of tiny earthquakes that occur as the magma rises.
2. Chemical sensors to measure increased sulphur levels.
3. Lasers to detect the physical swelling of the volcano.
4. Ultrasound to monitor low-frequency waves in the magma, resulting from the surge of gas and molten rock.
5. Observations - 52Living with a volcano (Positive effects)Some countries were created by volcanic activity.
Volcanic soils can be rich, deep and fertile to allow intensive agriculture.
Some volcanoes are culturally symbolic and a part of the national identity.
Geothermal energy using steam from underground can produce electricity.
Volcanoes, hot springs and geysers can create tourism. Creates jobs for guides, hotels, restaurants and gift shops. - 53Secondary hazards of tectonic events: LaharAssociated with volcanic activity. Rain brings soot and ash back to the ground and becomes a heavily saturated mudflow.
The heat from volcanoes melts snow and ice - the resulting flow picks up sediment and turns it into a destructive lahar. - 54Secondary hazards of tectonic events: Tsunamis90% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific basin. They are generally caused by earthquakes but can be caused by volcanoes and landslides. Have the potential to cause widespread disaster.
- 55Tsunami warning systems:It is impossible to predict precisely where and when a tsunami will happen. In most cases it is only possible to raise alarm once a tsunami has started. It is however able to predict the risk of tsunamis caused by submarine volcanoes.
Although a warning can be issued the impacts will vary with shoreline morphology. Many LEDCs lack early warning systems, and as a result, tsunamis can have dire consequences. - 56Factors affecting the perception of risk1. Experience: the more experience a person has with environmental hazards the greater the adjustment to the hazard.
2. Material well-being: those who are better off have more choices
3. Personality: is the person a leader or a follower, a risk-taker or risk-minimiser? - 57What is mass movement?Mass movement can be defined as the large-scale movement of weathered material in response to gravity. Essentially, it's when a cliff or other structure that is not horizontally orientated has been weathered to the point at which it starts to collapse.
- 58Ways mass movements can occur1. As slow movements such as soil creep
2. As fast movements such as avalanches
3. As dry movements such as rock falls
4. As fluid movements such as mudflows - 59Factors affecting mass movement - Slope of the land surfaceWhen the slope gradient is steep, mass movement is rapid.
- 60Factors affecting mass movement - Water contentWater acts as a lubricant, which makes it easier for the material to move. Following a period of heavy rain, regolith is heavier and flows more quickly.
- 61Factors affecting mass movement - Human activityHills are often cut into during the construction of roads. This makes the hill unstable, which can lead to mass movement. The vibrations from machinery and traffic can also result in mass movement, as can deforestation.
- 62Factors affecting mass movement - Tectonic activityVolcanic activity can lead to the movement of material downslope. Mudflows (lahars), occur when the snow or ice covering a crater melts during an eruption. This water mixes with soil to form mud. Earthquakes can also cause areas of hills or mountains to move downslope.
- 63Factors affecting mass movement - Plants and treesThe tree/plant roots bind soil in place and prevent mass movement.
- 64Factors affecting mass movement - Slope materialMass movement is also affected by slope material, whether it is consolidated (such as rocks) or unconsolidated.
- 65Factors affecting mass movement -Geological structureRocks with faults and potential weaknesses within them are more vulnerable to weathering and less resistant to downslope movement.
- 66Sheer stress and resistanceThe likelihood of a slope failing depends on the relative strength and resistance of the slope, compared with the force that is trying to move it.
Mass movements occur when the shear stress on a slope exceeds the shear resistance - therefore the slope can not overcome the forces of gravity and a mass movement begins.
Gravity has two effects, it can act to move the material downslope (slide component) or it can act to stick the particles to the slide (stick component) - 67Classification of mass movementMass movements are classified in a number of ways, including speed of movement and the amount of water present. In addition, it is possible to distinguish between different types of movement, such as falls, flows, slides and slumps
Slow movements: soil creep, solifluction
Fast movements: earth flow, mudflow
Rapid movements: slides, rocks, falls, slumps, avalanches. - 68AvalanchesAvalanches are mass movements of snow and ice. Newly fallen snow may fall off older snow, especially in winter, while in spring partially thawed snow moves, often triggered by skiing.
Avalanches occur frequently on steep slopes over 22 degrees, especially on north-facing slopes where the lack of sun inhibits the stabilisation of the snow.
They are also very fast. Average speeds in an avalanche are 40-60km per hour, but speeds of up to 200km per hour have been recorded. - 69Avalanche classification1. The type of breakaway - from a point formed with loose snow or an area formed of a slab.
2. Position of the sliding surface - the whole snow cover or just the surface.
3. Water content - dry or wet avalanches
4. The form of the avalanche - whether it is channelled in cross-section or open. - 70Reasons for avalanchesThe snow remains in place as long as its strength is greater than the stress exerted by its weight and the slope angle.
Changes in overlying pressure, compaction by freshly fallen snow, temperature changes and the movement of meltwater cause the structure of the snow to change. - 71Tropical storms formationSea temperatures must be over 27 degrees to a depth of 60m as the warm water gives off large quantities of heat when it is condensed - the driving force behind the tropical storm.
The low-pressure area has to be far enough away from the equator so that the Coriolis force creates rotation in the rising air mass - if it is too close to the equator there is insufficient rotation and the tropical storm will not develop
Conditions must be unstable - some tropical low-pressure systems develop into tropical storms but scientists are unsure why some do and others do not. - 72How are tropical storms measured?Tropical storms are the most violent, damaging and frequent hazard to affect tropical regions. They are measured on the Saffir-Simpson Scale, which is a 1-5 rating based on the tropical storm's intensity. It is used to give an estimate of the potential property damage and flooding expected along the coast from the tropical storm's landfall.
- 73How are tropical storms measured?Wind speed is the determining factor in the scale, as storm surge values are highly dependent on the slope of the continental shelf and the shape of the coastline in the landfall region. Tropical storms can also cause considerable loss of life.
- 74Hazards of tropical storms (cyclones)Tropical storms bring intense rainfall and very high winds, which may in turn cause storm surges and coastal flooding, and other hazards such as flooding and mudslides.
Tropical storms are also characterised by enormous quantities of water- This is due to their origin over tropical seas. High-intensity rainfall, as well as large totals - up to 500 mm in 24 hours invariably cause flooding. - 75Hazards of tropical storms (cyclones)Their path is erratic, so it is not always possible to give more than 12 hours' notice of their position. This is insufficient for proper evacuation measures.
They move excess heat from low latitudes to higher latitudes. They normally develop in the westward lowing air just north of the equator. Start as a small-scale tropical depression causing warm air to rise, causing thunderstorms. - 76Hazards of tropical storms (cyclones)Tropical storms develop as intense low-pressure systems move over tropical oceans. Winds spiral rapidly around a calm central area known as the eye.
The diameter of the whole storm may be as much as 800km although strong winds are found in the narrower belt up to 300km. Pressure may fall as low as 880 Mb. - 77Factors affecting the impact of tropical stormsTropical storm paths are unpredictable, which makes effective management of the threat difficult.
The distribution of the population will alter whether the risk is increased or reduced.
Hazard migration depends upon the effectiveness of the human response to natural events including urban planning laws, emergency planning, evacuation measures, and relief operations. and distribution of food aid and clean water.
LEDCs continue to lose more lives to natural hazards, due to inadequate planning and preparation. - 78Tropical storm management1. Satellite images
2. Aircraft that fly into the eye of the tropical storm to record weather information
3. Weather stations at ground levels
4. Radars that monitor areas of intense rainfall. - 79Tropical storm preparation - Before the stormKnow where your emergency shelters are.
Have disaster supplies on hand.
Protect your windows.
Trim back branches from trees
Check home and car insurance
Make arrangements for pets and livestock. - 80Preparing for tropical storms - During the stormListen to the radio or tv for storm progress
Check emergency supplies
Make sure your car is full of fuel
Bring in outdoor objects and anchor objects that cannot be brought inside
Secure buildings by closing and boarding up windows
Remove outside antennas and satellite dishes - 81Preparing for tropical storms - After the stormAssist in search and rescue
Seek medical attention for persons injured
Clean up debris and effect temporary repairs
Report damage to utilities
Watch out for secondary hazards - 82Reducing vulnerability of structures and infrastructures to tropical stormsNew buildings should be designed to be wind and water-resistant. Design standards are usually incorporated into building codes
Communication and utility lines should be located away from the coastal area or installed underground
Areas of the building should be improved by raising the ground level to protect against flood and storm surges
Protective river embankments, levees and coastal dikes should be regularly inspected for breaches due to erosion and opportunities should be taken to plant mangrove trees to reduce breaking wave energy - 83TornadoesSmall and short-lived but highly destructive storms. Because of their severe nature in small size, comparatively little is known about them.
Consist of elongated funnels of cloud which extend from the base of a well-developed cumulonimbus cloud
Rotating violent winds that can exceed 100m/s and a pressure form 25mb to 100mb - 84Tornado formationMoisture, instability, lift and wind shear are the four key ingredients in tornado formation.
Most tornadoes rotate cyclonically
Warm moist air meets cold dry air to form a tornado
Destructive and deadly tornadoes develop from supercells
Can last from several seconds to more than an hour - 85Impacts of tornadoes1. Winds are often so strong that objects in the tornado's path are removed by damage.
2. Strong potential movement tends to twist objects from their fixings.
3. Walls and roofs may explode outwards - 86Tornado Fujita damage scaleEF0 - Light damage and windspeeds 65-85mph
EF1- Moderate damage and windspeeds 86-100mph
EF2 - Considerable damage and windspeeds 111-135mph
EF3- Severe damage and windspeeds 136-165mph
EF4- Devastating damage and windspeeds 166-200mph
EF5 - Incredible damage and windspeeds over 200mph - 87Tornado mangamentAnything that could affect a tornado would be more deadly or destructive than the tornado
Smaller things like huge piles of dry ice are too hard to deploy
No proof that seeding can or can't change tornado potential in a thunderstorm - 88Assessing and mitigating damaging effects of mass movementsAssessment of mass movement is based on past events to evaluate their magnitude and frequency.
Mapping and testing of soil and rock properties determine their susceptibility to establishing processes.
Eliminating or restricting human activities may reduce damage.
Early warning systems can provide forecasts of intense rain.
Engineering schemes can reduce damage of mass wasting
Concrete blocks or gabions may be used to strengthen slopes
Overstepped slopes can be made gentler by regaring. - 89Learning to live with earthquakesMost places with a history of earthquakes have developed plans that enable people to deal with them. The aim is to reduce the effect of earthquakes and thus save lives, buildings and money.
Ways to reduce earthquake impact include - earthquake prediction, building design, flood prevention, and public information - 90Learning to live with earthquakes - PreparationControlling buildings in high-risk areas and using seismic designs. In addition, warning systems can be used to warn people of an imminent earthquake and inform them of what to do when it happens.
Insurance schemes are another form of preparation by sharing the costs between a wide group of people. - 91Learning to live with earthquakes - Building designSingle-story buildings are more suitable than multi-storey structures because this reduced the number of people at risk, and the threat of collapse over roads and evacuation routes.
Some tall buildings are built with a soft storey at the bottom. This cushions the impacts.
Rubber mounts allow the ground to move
Building on foundations built deep into underlying bedrock can withstand shaking.
Land use planning is another important way to reduce risk - 92Learning to live with earthquakes - Controlling earthquakesAltering the fluid pressure deep underground at the point of greatest stress in the fault line, a series of small and less damaging earthquake events may be triggered which could release the energy that would otherwise build up and create a major event.
Additionally, a series of controlled underground nuclear explosions might relieve stress before it reaches critical levels.
Informações
- Descrição
- A level Geography FlashCards sobre Hazardous Environments - A Level, criado por Christopher Russell em 17-04-2023.
- Criado por
- Christopher Russell
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