Theory and Methods

Theory and Methods

1. How sociologists create theories:

   • Based on findings from reseach
   • Research methods underpin sociology

2. Research methods

   • Primary
     • Covert operations= under cover observing
       • study is carried out under cover.
       • true identity and purpose is kept hidden
     • Overt operations= on the surface/clear observing
       • Could change behaviour of particiants- Hawthorne effect
       • Makes their true idenetity and prupose known
     • Focus Group= a group of people assembled to discuss a topic
     • Interview= asking questions face to face
       • Types of interview:
         • Semi-structured
           • Some structured questions, some unstructured so they can find out more about individual
         • Unstructured
           • Have a set of questions but aims to be more converstaional
           • Enables researcher to adapt schedule
         • Structured
           • uses a set of pre-planned questions, interview schedule
           • Interviewer is not allowed to deviate from questions
       • Can be conducted individually or in groups
       • Can be conducted face to face or over the phone
       • Used for gathering data
       • Problems with interviews
         • Leading questions= researcher phrases the question for a particular answer
         • Validity= respondents may not always tell the truth, reluctant to give honest answers
         • Interview bias- presence of interviewer influences answers
     • Questionnaire= a group of open&closed questions
     • Experiments= a scientific procedure to make a discovery
     • Survey= examining someone/something
     • DEFINITION= data produced by yourself
       • created for sociological research
       • Can be time-consuming
   • Secondary
     • Quantitative secondary sources= O stats
     • Researching education= methods in context
     • Qualitative secondary sources= (documents), media
     • Definition= pre-existing data not produced for sociological research
       • Produced by the state and private companies
       • Cheap data that is easily accessed

3. Quantitative research methods

   • Promoters of quanititative dtata are called positivists
   • It is reliable data
   • Presented in numerical form
   • Macro analysis
   • Examples:
     • Experiments
     • Questionnaires
     • Official statistsics
   • Advantages:
     • Reliable and structured
     • More practical for large scale
     • Can be analysed statistically
   • Disadvantages:
     • Limited understanding
     • Can't identify explanation for trends
     • Subjectivity is involved

4. Qualitative research methods

   • Examples
     • Interviews
     • Documents
     • Observations
   • Advantages
     • Understand reasons behind trends
     • open-ended= undercover unexpected findings
     • Lots of depth and detail of understanding
   • Disadvantages
     • unpratical for large study
     • Unstructured= lacks reliability
     • Risk of subjectivity

5. Practical influences

   • Issues of a method;
     • participant observation
     • Access to the research group; time and cost
     • Sample surveys; if large= expensive; if small= not representative

6. Ethical issues

   • Moral principles
   • Important guidelines for reearch
   • Deception- the act of making someone believe something that is not true
   • Informed consent= permission with full knowledge
   • protection from harm
   • Confidentiality- promise privacy

7. Experiments

   • Variables
     • Independent
       • This is what is changed to see an effect on the dependent variable
       • Test if changed in independent affect dependent so that we can identify the cause
     • Dependent
       • What changes as a result of something else
       • This is whta we explain (effect)
   • Types of experiments
     • Laboratory= hypothesis tested in controlled conditions
     • The comparative method= researcher compares 2 social groups that are alike except from 1 factor
     • Field experiment= conducted in natural surroundings of the respondent e.g. school
       • Advantages
         • Behaviour in real life setting
         • Validity is good
         • control some variables
       • Disadvantages
         • Can't control all variables
         • Ethical issues of deceit
         • Depends on skill of observer/selectivity
   • Definition= an attempt within artificial conditions to text 1 or more variables to establish a cause and effect

8. Types of observation

   • Participant
     • Gets involved with the observation
     • Can closely judge peoples behaviour
     • It is dangerous
     • Most popular
   • Non-participant
     • Observes from sidelines
     • e.g. 2 way mirrors