OCR Biology - F212 - Module 3 (In progress)

OCR Biology - F212 - Module 3 (In progress)

1. Evolution

   • Adaptations
     • Features that enhances survival and long-term reproductive success.
     • An adapted organism will be able to: Find food better or photosynthesis well. Find enough water. Gather enough nutrients. Defend itself from predators or diseases. Survive the physical conditions of its environment, such as change in temperature. Respond to changes in its environment. Still have enough energy to successively.
     • Behaviour
       • The organisms behaviour is affected by seasons, contact or mating rituals.
     • Physiological / Biochemical
     • Anatomical
       • Structural enhances to an organism
   • Natural selection
     • The process that an organism will randomly mutate and if that mutation means it can survive better, that trait will be passed on to its offspring and in time a new species will arise (Speciation) 
     • Finches (Case study)
     • Evidence for
     • Reproductive barriers
     • Speciation
       • Allopatric
         • Different locations
       • Sympatric
         • When either a courtship dance is no longer recognised, or sexual organs are no longer compatible and they cannot mate. 
   • Variation
     • The presence of variety of differences between individuals. Genetic variation= caused by differences in genes, combination of genes and alleles
     • Continuous
       • 2 extremes and a full range of different phenotypes. e.g. height
     • Discontinuous
       • Discrete group of phenotypes with no or little difference between them. e.g. blood type 
     • Causes
       • Genetic
         • different alleles or combination of alleles e.g. gene on hair colour
       • Environmental
         • E.g. sun exposure and skin colour. Wind direction and direction branches grow
   • Evolution seen today

2. Identifying / Classifying

   • Organisms are organised: for our convenience to make the study of natural things more manageable to make identifying organisms easier to help us see the relationships between species
   • It is important that organisms are identified as they are important to their habitat. Meaning scientists need to know what is in the area they are working in and know what to look for so that species is protected
   • Some closely related organisms can share there scientific name as they have the same genus and have similar characteristics, even share a common ancestor.
   • Kingdom
     • Animalia
     • Fungi
     • Plantae
     • Protoctists
     • Prokaryotes
   • Phylum
   • Class
   • Order
   • Family
   • Genus
   • Species
     • A species is a group of individual organisms with similar appearance, anatomy, behaviour, biochemistry and genetics. When they reproduce, they produce fertile offspring.
   • Old methods
     • Binomial
       • Using 2 names to to identify a species, the genus and species
     • Dichotomous key
       • A series of 2 possible answer question questions to identify a species 
   • New methods
     • DNA
       • Every organism has DNA or RNA. It is the most accurate way to determine how related 2 species are, as if a sequence of DNA codes a protein, it will be the same sequence in a bacteria, an animal etc.  Like amino acids, The same 3 conclusions can be made.
       • This has been backed up by evolutionary relationships we already know, and can be used to clarify relationships we are unsure about.
     • Amino acids
       • Cytochrome c is a protein used in respiration, any everything (except some prokaryotes)  must respire, so everything that respires must have cytochrome c.
       • The sequence of amino acids draw 3 conclusions: If the sequence is similar, the 2 species are closely related. If the sequence is very different, the 2 species aren't closely related. The more similarities in the sequence, the closer they 2 species are related.
     • 3 domains
       • This is based on rRNA, ribosomes and protein synthesis
       • Eubacteria
       • Eukaryote
       • Archaebacteria

3. Protecting

   • Conservation
     • In situ
     • Ex situ
       • Seed banks
       • Zoos
     • Why?
   • When we dont protect
     • Extinction
       • More animals become endangered or extinct due to climate change, loss of habitat and an increase of human population
     • Biodiversity loss
       • Importance of genetic diversity
     • Affects of climate change
   • Conventions
     • CITES
       • Regulate trade of selected species,  Ensure trade does not endanger species, prohibit trade of wild plants, allow trade of artificially propagated plants, allow some trade of less endangered organisms
     • EIA
       • Things to be considered when carrying out an environment impact survey,  Biodiversity of area, any endangered species, rarity of the habitat, movement of organisms when the habitat is lost, effect on reduced size of ecosystem, a method to minimize the impact.
     • Rio convention
       • Policies include: Sustainable use of ecosystems, Shared genetic resources, Share access to knowledge, International cooperation, Raising profile of biodiversity to government.

4. Biodiversity

   • When describing the biodiversity of an area, thing to consider are: total number of species, number of individuals within each species, the range of habitats and the genetic variation within species.
   • Sampling
     • The number of counted animals/species will be different to the actual number of animals/species because: Not all areas discovered/explored.  Some organisms can be difficult to see (Small, nocturnal) They might be rare. Some species difficult to define.
     • Equations
       • Richness
       • Density
       • Diversity
         • gg
         • If there is a high result of the diversity index, there is a high biodiversity and no development on the site should be made
     • Random
     • Effective sampling
       • vug
       • To improve a method of collecting data, you can: Collect in a different/wider area, Different times of day, Using a collecting technique such as sweet net, Ensuring you don't count individuals twice, a mark release 
     • Methods
       • Transect/quadrats
       • A pooter
       • Tullgren funnel
       • Pitfall trap
       • Light trap
       • Sweep net
       • Trees
     • Classification / Taxonomy
       • Biological classification is the process of sorting living things into groups.  Natural classification does this by grouping things on how closely related they are, it reflects phylogeny.
       • Taxonomy is the study of the principles of classification, this means the differences between species. When classifying a new species, a taxonomist needs to account for: DNA, Cytochrome c, anatomy, phylogeny, behaviour 
       • Phylogeny
         • The study of evolutionary relationships between organisms. This is often used with an evolutionary tree
         • Monophyletic- Same phylogenetic group
       • Natural classification
         • A hierarchy is given from how closely related species are. Modern classification is more reflectant on evolutionary distance between species and when 2 species had the same ancestor. the more recent the ancestor, the shorter the evolutionary distance. The common ancestor is dead now.
   • Habitat
   • Ecosystem

Imagens e arquivos do mapa