Normative Ethics

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Act Utilitarianism

Bentham's principle of utility states that an action ought to be done if it brings about the maximum possible happiness for those parties affected by that action

In choosing between action A and action B I must also take into account the unhappiness produced

I must always choose self-sacrifice as it is about all parties involved

Hedonistic utilitarianism is about the twin experiences of pain and pleasure

honesty, kindness etc have only instrumental value in that they lead to more pleasure

The Hedonic Calculus

The method used to assess the quantity of pain or pleasure involved in an action.

Bentham admits that few pleasures are pure and that most are mixed with pain

Four considerations: intensity, duration, certainty and propinquity

Criticism of Bentham's Utilitarianism solved by Mill

Bentham's hedonic calculus condones actions which, even though increasing the total amount of pleasure, are still morally inexcusable e.g. gang rapes.

It justifies any majority of persons suppressing the human rights of a minority

Mill rejects Bentham's purely quantitive assessment and argues for a qualitative approach, appreciating that different pleasures have different values.

Criticisms of Act Utilitarianism

Consequences - how do we accurately guess consequences? How far into the future do we go?

Special responsibilities - do we have to kill our fathers to save a doctor?

Justice - how should happiness be distributed? could an innocent person be punished to make everyone happy? Does justice not demand dealing with people according to their merits and deserts?

Rule Utilitarianism

Amendment to act utilitarianism which incorporates Kant's rule of universalisability

Avoids the hazards of individual choice

Allows for justice and special responsibility

However it may collapse into act utilitarianism in emergency situations

Deontology

The moral worth of an action lies in its obedience to a particular rule or principle regardless of inclinations, self-interest or consequences.

Being good means having the good will

The consequences of a moral action are not relevant - what makes an action moral is the intentions behind it

the good will's motive is to act for the sake of duty

e.g. the shopkeeper has a duty to keep prices fair and does so not because it will bring increased profits

The motive behind a good action must therefore have nothing to do with self-interest or consequences

The only motive for doing good must be the awareness that it is the right thing to do

The Categorical Imperative

A duty must be of universal application

A duty must appeal to reason

The categorical imperative is obeyed precisely because what it commands is accepted as good in itself, as being an intrinsic good

Distinct from a hypothetical imperative such as "if i want to be respected, I ought to tell the truth" it is simply "i ought to tell the truth"

Also important is to treat all rational beings equally

All rational beings have inherent worth, they are ends in themselves and therefore should not be treated as an ends to a mean

Positives

Unlike u-ism it takes account of justice. This is because the morality of an action does not derive from the number it benefits but the intrinsic rightness of the action

Criticisms

Doing one's duty also involved obeying rules to which we feel no moral obligation

Therefore it cannot be, as Kant says, that the moral person is one who acts in accordance with the categorical imperative

Kant also overlooks differences in preference of rational people. Sadists might think sadism should be universalised.

Kant also overlooks contradictions in nature. Should I always tell the truth? regardless of circumstance?

SAVED! by W.D. Ross

Ross' amendment to Kant's theory is of prima face duties

These are non-absolute conditional duties that may be overridden when a more compelling duty is present

E.g. never tell a lie is a prima facie duty because what if I was hiding jews from Nazis

Virtue Ethics

Moral action is defined in terms of the character exhibited by the agent

An act is right not because it conforms to a moral principle but because the agent displays virtuous qualities of character

We learn what is right by cultivating within ourselves principles in that we will naturally desire to do good and derive pleasure from doing it.

Therefore when one does a moral act it is not in order to bring the greatest happiness or because his duty requires it but because it is a virtue and the act is an expression of his virtuous personality.

Solves problem of deontology

Deontology doesn't take into account the emotional state of the agent. Is a father who rescues his daughter out of love rather than duty less virtuous?

The question becomes not what I ought to do but what sort of person ought I to become?

Makes moral action easier because it's about cultivating a moral life without having to over think/calculate every action

Criticisms of Aristotle

Aristotle's function argument is based on his 'teleological' view of the world in which creation is always purposive. In a post-Darwinian age this is less plausible.

Furthermore functions unique to humans are not always desirable - what about the building of concentration camps?

Just because females can uniquely have children does mean that barren women are unfulfilled.

The doctrine of the mean seems incapable of guiding moral choices. The mean is identified by the man of practical wisdom but how do we identify such a man?

The courage of a freedom fighter will be viewed as some as a terrorist

Many different types of life may be called 'virtuous' and the activity of being virtuous is not tied to one specific occupation or situation.

Thus, as a maxim of moral action, Aristotle's 'act as a virtuous person would' remains unhelpful.

Modern virtue ethics

Replacement version theory - all notions of rule-based obligation should be rejected. All judgements of rightness are therefore reduced to character.

Reductionist version theory - only some judgements of rightness are reducible to judgements of character. An ethics of virtue does not prevent our understanding such moral absolutes as 'lying is morally wrong'. There are some categorical judgements which we therefore make regardless of our inclinations or desires.

Principles of Aristotelian Ethics

Eudamonia = the good towards which all moral behaviour is directed - living or doing well. Functioning well as a human being involves moral excellence which leads to flourishing

Moral virtue = qualities such as generosity, temperance, courage and justice. Repetition of these qualities leads to habit of a virtuous life.

Doctrine of the mean = sophrosune - the danger is in excess and deficiency. The mean between rashness and cowardice is courage

Utilitarianism

deontology

virtue ethics