Quiz
Polymorphism and Sociality
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Questions in this quiz (26)
1[blank_start]polymorphism[blank_end] is phenotypic variation produced by differences in [blank_start]environmental[blank_end] conditions rather than differences in genetic composition
- nurture not [blank_start]nature[blank_end]
polymorphism is also known as [blank_start]polyphenism[blank_end]
polyphenism/[blank_start]polymorphism[blank_end] is commonly seen in [blank_start]arthropods[blank_end] > they have [blank_start]short[blank_end] life spans so allows them so exploit all seasons
get potential for more than one insect from the same set of genetic instructions- Apolymorphism
- Benvironmental
- Cnature
- Dpolyphenism
- Epolymorphism
- Farthropods
- Gshort
2seasonal polymorphism is seen in [blank_start]lepidoptera[blank_end] (moths and butterflies) e.g. Araschnia levana ([blank_start]european[blank_end] butterfly) which shows 2 different morphs for the different seasons
- has a [blank_start]spring[blank_end] time morph and an autumn morph > depending on when they are born they have different morphs
1 morph = [blank_start]levana[blank_end] morph
other morph = [blank_start]prorsa[blank_end] morph
until very recently the 2 morphs were thought to be 2 different species, however, are now identified as the same species European [blank_start]butterfly[blank_end]
- Alepidoptera
- Beuropean
- Cspring
- Dlevana
- Eprorsa
- Fbutterfly
3The seasonal polymorphism seen in the [blank_start]european[blank_end] butterfly, Araschnia levana is induced by [blank_start]photoperiod[blank_end] (light period)
the [blank_start]long[blank_end] days in the summer induce a non-[blank_start]diapause[blank_end] pupa producing the prorsa morph
the [blank_start]short[blank_end] days in the autumn induce a diapause pupa producing the [blank_start]levana[blank_end] morph
the [blank_start]prorsa[blank_end] (summer morph) produce a second generation in a year (which is the levana morph)
the diapausing pupa (bit like dormancy), levana, is produced during short days to survive the harsh [blank_start]winter[blank_end]- Aeuropean
- Bphotoperiod
- Clong
- Ddiapause
- Eshort
- Flevana
- Gprorsa
- Hwinter
4[blank_start]Diet[blank_end] induced polymorphism
- Nemoria arizonia > a [blank_start]lepidoptera[blank_end] (mothbutterfly) found in the USA
the spring larvae feed on [blank_start]catkins[blank_end] which produces a morph that mimics catkins
the summer larvae feed on [blank_start]leaves[blank_end] and produce a morph that resembles a oak twig
experiments were conducted into this:
- caterpillars were fed catkins (which are low in [blank_start]tannin[blank_end]) and the caterpillars all took the [blank_start]catkin[blank_end] morph
- caterpillars were fed oak leaves ([blank_start]high[blank_end] in tannin) and they all produced the oak [blank_start]twig[blank_end] morph
caterpillars were then fed artificial catkins which were high with [blank_start]tannin[blank_end] > mostly [blank_start]oak[blank_end] twig morphs were produced
there must be other factors playing a role (e.g. [blank_start]photoperiod[blank_end]) but tannin does have an effect- ADiet
- Blepidoptera
- Ccatkins
- Dleaves
- Etannin
- Fcatkin
- Ghigh
- Htwig
- Itannin
- Joak
- Kphotoperiod
5[blank_start]Density[blank_end] induced polymorphism e.g. seen in locusts such as
1. [blank_start]Locusta[blank_end] migratoria
2. Schistocerca gregaria which has [blank_start]2[blank_end] morphs:
> solitaria = [blank_start]solitaria[blank_end] morph shows large [blank_start]females[blank_end], long adult life and high [blank_start]fecundity[blank_end] (females produce a lot of eggs)
> [blank_start]gregaria[blank_end] = gregaria morphs are [blank_start]more[blank_end] active, more body fat, higher [blank_start]oxygen[blank_end] consumption
The 2 morphs show:
- [blank_start]different[blank_end] colourations
- different maturation rates > in both Schistocerca and Locusta the time to adult is [blank_start]shorter[blank_end] in the gregaria morph compared to the solitaria morph
In the Migratory locust of Africa, Asia and Australia (Locusta migratoria), the phenotypic differences are so extreme that the two phases were originally classified by [blank_start]Linnaeus[blank_end] as separate species
In 1921 Russian biologist Boris Uvarov proved that the two phases are not different genotypes (causes phenotype)
Disputed by [blank_start]Uvarov[blank_end]
- ADensity
- BLocusta
- C2
- Dsolitaria
- Efemales
- Ffecundity
- Ggregaria
- Hmore
- Ioxygen
- Jdifferent
- Kshorter
- LLinnaeus
- MUvarov
6[blank_start]Density[blank_end] induced polymorphism in locusts
- [blank_start]behaviour[blank_end] is the first trait to change in response to over-crowding; and lies at the heart of swarm formation and migration
- a solitarious locust will switch from avoiding other locusts to exhibiting [blank_start]gregarious[blank_end] behaviour only a few [blank_start]hours[blank_end] of over-crowding > have to be careful when doing experiments to keep them separate
one locusts have become [blank_start]attracted[blank_end] to one another rather than repelled, a [blank_start]positive[blank_end] (+) feedback loop is established that can drive an initially [blank_start]solitarious[blank_end] population to a gregarious population
behavioural [blank_start]assays[blank_end] have been developed to establish/quantify the behavioural phase and also to investigate the [blank_start]stimuli[blank_end] causing the switch and mechanisms involved
most research has been into Schistocerca gregaria rather than [blank_start]Locusta[blank_end] migratoria- ADensity
- Bbehaviour
- Cgregarious
- Dhours
- Eattracted
- Fpositive
- Gsolitarious
- Hassays
- Istimuli
- JLocusta
7the [blank_start]sight[blank_end] and smell of other locusts, together trigger the behavioural phase change, but [blank_start]direct[blank_end] contact with other locusts is the [blank_start]most[blank_end] powerful initial gregarising stimulus.
the critical site of mechanical stimulation during contact has even been localised to a region of touch-sensitive receptors on jumping [blank_start]hind[blank_end] legs
contact with this specific area is the [blank_start]most[blank_end] powerful 'kick' to the system to change into gregarious from [blank_start]solitarious[blank_end]- Asight
- Bdirect
- Cmost
- Dhind
- Emost
- Fsolitarious
8If locusts are to contact each other [blank_start]regularly[blank_end] and stimulate behavioral phase change, they must occur at [blank_start]high[blank_end] local densities. First, the predisposition of [blank_start]solitarious[blank_end] locusts to avoid each other must be overcome, in order to become gregarious locusts
recent [blank_start]laboratory[blank_end] studies, field experiments in africa and [blank_start]computer[blank_end] simulations have shown the crowding of solitarious locusts that eventually produces [blank_start]gregarious[blank_end] locusts is highly dependent distribution and chemical composition of [blank_start]food[blank_end] sources
- A population of solitarious locusts is more likely to gregarize (to become [blank_start]gregarious[blank_end]) in vegetation consisting of compact clumps than where vegetation is spread [blank_start]evenly[blank_end] but sparsely.
my many locusts become [blank_start]gregarized[blank_end] this could lead to large-scale swarms- Aregularly
- Bhigh
- Csolitarious
- Dlaboratory
- Ecomputer
- Fgregarious
- Gfood
- Hgregarious
- Ievenly
- Jgregarized
9in nymphs of [blank_start]Schistocerca[blank_end] gregaria the [blank_start]smell[blank_end] of other locusts is sufficient to induce the characteristic [blank_start]black[blank_end] patterning of the gregarious phase juvenile locusts
BUT it does not cause the [blank_start]yellowing[blank_end] of the background colour, this yellowing requires [blank_start]direct[blank_end] contact with [blank_start]conspecifics[blank_end] (of the same species), suggesting the action of a chemical contact cue
the black patterning is controlled by the [blank_start]neuropeptide[blank_end], [His7]-corazonin
the neuropeptide [blank_start][Hiz7]-corazonin[blank_end] also changes the body [blank_start]shape[blank_end] towards the gregarious phase, but has [blank_start]no[blank_end] effect on the behavioural phase state
the neurotransmitter [blank_start]serotonin[blank_end] is involved in initiating gregarization in Schistocerca (see bb folder)- ASchistocerca
- Bsmell
- Cblack
- Dyellowing
- Edirect
- Fconspecifics
- Gneuropeptide
- H[Hiz7]-corazonin
- Ishape
- Jno
- Kserotonin
10the [blank_start]smell[blank_end] and sight of other locusts and [blank_start]hind[blank_end] legs being touched all are stimuli involved in gregarization, however through experiments the importance of the neurotransmitter [blank_start]serotonin[blank_end] has been shown
when serotonin is [blank_start]blocked[blank_end] or not made solitarious morph is only produced
- when serotonin is injected for drugs that mimic the effect are injected the [blank_start]gregarious[blank_end] morph occurs
despite the [blank_start]presence[blank_end] or absence of the stimuli above
- Asmell
- Bhind
- Cserotonin
- Dblocked
- Egregarious
- Fpresence
11Phase characteristics, including behaviour, not only change within the life of an individual, they also accumulate [blank_start]epigenetically[blank_end] across generations.
Solitarious S. [blank_start]gregaria[blank_end] females can produce hatchlings that are behaviourally gregarious to an extent that reflects when the mother was last crowded.
If the mother is crowded for the first time ever while laying her [blank_start]eggs[blank_end], she will produce offspring that behave gregariously upon hatching.
In contrast, if a gregarious phase female is alone when laying her eggs, she will produce hatchlings that express [blank_start]solitarious[blank_end] phase behaviours.
This maternal effect is mediated by a [blank_start]chemical[blank_end] that the mother adds to the egg foam that surrounds her eggs in the [blank_start]soil[blank_end].
In effect, female locusts use their own experience of being crowded to predict the population [blank_start]density[blank_end] that their young will experience, and predispose them to behave appropriately- Aepigenetically
- Bgregaria
- Ceggs
- Dsolitarious
- Echemical
- Fsoil
- Gdensity
12[blank_start]Sociality[blank_end] in insects varies in degree
eusociality is the [blank_start]most[blank_end] social, it involves co-operation in tending to young
- there is overlap of [blank_start]generations[blank_end] capable of contributing to the colony; termed [blank_start]alloparental[blank_end] care (alloparental care)
- there is division of [blank_start]labour[blank_end]; described as a caste system
this [blank_start]caste[blank_end] system is only found in termites (isoptera), ants, some bees and wasps ([blank_start]hymenoptera[blank_end])
- ASociality
- Bmost
- Cgenerations
- Dalloparental
- Elabour
- Fcaste
- Ghymenoptera
13[blank_start]Eusociality[blank_end] (ity) in hymenoptera ([blank_start]bees[blank_end] and wasps)
- evolved at least [blank_start]11[blank_end] times within this order
Haplo-diploidy
- [blank_start]haplo-diploidy[blank_end] is a unique system of asymmetrical [blank_start]gametes[blank_end] (sperm and eggs)
- probably responsible for kin selection, which gave rise to [blank_start]altruistic[blank_end] (self-less) system of hymenoptera
- females are [blank_start]diploid[blank_end] (have 2 sets of chromosomes) and are formed from fertilised [blank_start]eggs[blank_end]
- males are [blank_start]haploid[blank_end] (1 set) and are from [blank_start]unfertilised[blank_end] eggs
altruistic system = helping each other- AEusociality
- Bbees
- C11
- Dhaplo-diploidy
- Egametes
- Faltruistic
- Gdiploid
- Heggs
- Ihaploid
- Junfertilised
14during [blank_start]meiosis[blank_end] the female can produce eggs that are [blank_start]unfertilised[blank_end] which can go on to produce a male, referred to as a [blank_start]drone[blank_end]
if fertilised this produces a [blank_start]female[blank_end] worker
- Ameiosis
- Bunfertilised
- Cdrone
- Dfemale
15In [blank_start]diploid[blank_end] organisms, offspring receive one of each two chromosomes from each [blank_start]parent[blank_end]. Therefore, each sibling has a relation coefficient of ½ to one another.
In haplo-diploidy [blank_start]males[blank_end] are haploid and [blank_start]females[blank_end] are diploid. Therefore, all female offspring of a mated pair, (the female worker caste), will receive the [blank_start]same[blank_end] chromosomes from their father, and thus each daughter shares a ¾ relation coefficient with the other – a [blank_start]closer[blank_end] relationship than they share with their mother.
Therefore, haplo-diploid individuals that become part of a
social [blank_start]caste[blank_end] specialized for the rearing of sisters would experience a selective advantage, as their genes would have a greater prevalence in the gene [blank_start]pool[blank_end] due to this close relationship with their true sisters (Wilson 1978; Queller et al. 1993).- Aparent
- Bdiploid
- Cmales
- Dfemales
- Esame
- Fcloser
- Gcaste
- Hpool
16honey bees show an [blank_start]altruistic[blank_end] system, for the worker sisters share a [blank_start]3/4[blank_end] relation coefficient with their sisters (closer to sisters than their mother) so it benefits them to help one another as they share a lot of [blank_start]genes[blank_end]
- Aaltruistic
- B3/4
- Cgenes
17the male [blank_start]drones[blank_end] in have huge [blank_start]eyes[blank_end], their function is to spot the queen > will leave the hive and look up to the sky for a [blank_start]queen[blank_end] potentially to mate with an produce a [blank_start]new[blank_end] hive
- Adrones
- Beyes
- Cqueen
- Dnew
18SO: the [blank_start]queen[blank_end] lays the eggs and the [blank_start]workers[blank_end] raise the eggs
- workers are more related to their [blank_start]sisters[blank_end] than their own daughters THUS not worthwhile to [blank_start]reproduce[blank_end] themselves
- workers are not SO related to their brothers so will [blank_start]not[blank_end] spend energy raising them
- Aqueen
- Bworkers
- Csisters
- Dreproduce
- Enot
19Queen bees control [blank_start]sex[blank_end] of young
[blank_start]Warton[blank_end] et al. 2007
- every queen goes on a mating flight and stores [blank_start]sperm[blank_end] for the rest of her life, using it up bit by bit as she lays eggs
- a queen will lay an unfertilised [blank_start]egg[blank_end] only if the cell is [blank_start]big[blank_end] enough to for the bigger male larvae
- so by controlling how many cells they build of each size, the [blank_start]workers[blank_end] can limit how many male offspring the queen produces
- Warton et al. [blank_start]2007[blank_end] confined queens in the hive in cages, the queen could [blank_start]not[blank_end] reach the big cells where she could lay male drone eggs but only could access the small cells where she could lay [blank_start]female[blank_end] worker eggs
after [blank_start]4[blank_end] days the cage was removed and the queen was allowed to roam, which had both big and [blank_start]small[blank_end] cells
the queen sought out the bigger (er) cells and on average laid nearly x[blank_start]3[blank_end] as many [blank_start]male[blank_end] done eggs as usual, apparently making up for the skewed hive gender ratio- Asex
- BWarton
- Csperm
- Degg
- Ebig
- Fworkers
- G2007
- Hnot
- Ifemale
- J4
- Ksmall
- L3
- Mmale
20the queen wants [blank_start]equal[blank_end] numbers of male and females (males = [blank_start]unfertilised[blank_end] eggs, [blank_start]females[blank_end] = fertilised eggs), for she is equally as related to both sexes
workers however, want [blank_start]more[blank_end] females for they are [blank_start]more[blank_end] related to their sisters > the female workers control the sex ratio by controlling the [blank_start]size[blank_end] of cells and then by provisioning (caring)- Aequal
- Bunfertilised
- Cfemales
- Dmore
- Emore
- Fsize
21drone cells where eggs are laid are bigger than where female worker eggs are laid, but the queen cells have to be very very large
- ATrue
- BFalse
22the queen uses her [blank_start]front[blank_end] legs to determine the [blank_start]size[blank_end] of cells, the pearly [blank_start]white[blank_end] egg measures 1.5mm and 0.5mm in [blank_start]diameter[blank_end]
the egg gets stuck to the [blank_start]bottom[blank_end] of the cell- Afront
- Bsize
- Cwhite
- Ddiameter
- Ebottom
23queen bees control the [blank_start]sex[blank_end] of young but the [blank_start]castes[blank_end] (c) of offspring are determined by provisioning provided by the [blank_start]workers[blank_end]
the size of cell guides the queen as to what type of [blank_start]egg[blank_end] to lay. the workers then provision the egg with varying amounts to determine the [blank_start]caste[blank_end] (c)
If fertilised (so will become a [blank_start]female[blank_end])
- large cells + at [blank_start]3[blank_end] days old the larvae is given queen [blank_start]jelly[blank_end] and a lot of food = produces a [blank_start]queen[blank_end]
- [blank_start]small[blank_end] cells + at 3 days old [blank_start]not[blank_end] given queen jelly and only light feeding = [blank_start]worker[blank_end] produced
egg = duration 3 days
larva and prepupa = 8 days
pupa = 9 days
finally an [blank_start]adult[blank_end] forms, so the development time is 19.5-20days- Asex
- Bcastes
- Cworkers
- Degg
- Ecaste
- Ffemale
- G3
- Hjelly
- Iqueen
- Jsmall
- Knot
- Lworker
- Madult
24The queen produces [blank_start]gaster[blank_end] substances plus queen mandibular secretion (9-oxodec-2-enoic acid)
these gaster sustances plus queen [blank_start]mandibular[blank_end] [blank_start]secretion[blank_end] (9-oxodec-2-enoic acid) stop workers becoming [blank_start]reproductive[blank_end] by stopping their [blank_start]ovaries[blank_end] from developing, this secures her [blank_start]dominance[blank_end] through most of the season- Agaster
- Bmandibular
- Csecretion
- Dreproductive
- Eovaries
- Fdominance
25Roles of the [blank_start]worker[blank_end] castes:
1-2 days, newly emerged adult workers remain in the nest first [blank_start]cleaning[blank_end] out their own cell after eating through their capped brood [blank_start]cell[blank_end]
3-5 days - Feeds [blank_start]older[blank_end] larvae
6-11 days - Feeds youngest [blank_start]larvae[blank_end]
12-17 days - Produces [blank_start]wax[blank_end], Builds comb, Carries food, [blank_start]Undertaker[blank_end] duties
18-21 days, workers perform guard duties and make short orientation flights
22+ days, mature workers [blank_start]forage[blank_end]- Aworker
- Bcleaning
- Ccell
- Dolder
- Elarvae
- Fwax
- GUndertaker
- Hforage
26Implications
in a season there may be 30,000 strong in the hive > of these, [blank_start]3[blank_end] workers may have [blank_start]ovaries[blank_end], may lay 7% of male eggs, however these eggs lack [blank_start]queen[blank_end] odours so are usually attacked and destroyed
when the queen ages, she runs out of [blank_start]sperm[blank_end] so starts to produce unfertilised male [blank_start]drone[blank_end] eggs only and stops creating the queen substance (gaster and [blank_start]mandibular[blank_end] secretion)
when queen dies:
- workers become reproductive as there is no queen substances to suppress development of [blank_start]ovaries[blank_end]
- can produce males without a mating flight
- drones are produced throughout colony life > but only live until they [blank_start]mate[blank_end] > after they mate their genitalia are ripped out and they [blank_start]die[blank_end]- A3
- Bovaries
- Cqueen
- Dsperm
- Edrone
- Fmandibular
- Govaries
- Hmate
- Idie
Information
- Description
- Entomology Quiz on Polymorphism and Sociality, created by sophie waddington on 10/12/2018.
- Author
- sophie waddington
- Language
- English
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