Karteikarten
Theorists
Karten in diesem Stapel (35)
- 1SkinnerParents have long known that children respond to a system of rewards and punishments. While to say that this is a simplification of the theories of famed American behaviourist B.F. Skinner would be an understatement, it is accurately descriptive of the most basic aspect of his beliefs. Operant behaviour and operant conditioning, Skinner's most widely acclaimed work, is based on a system of both positive and negative reinforcement.
- 2Skinner Operant Behaviour and ConditioningWhile it is commonly known that behaviour is affected by its consequences, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning further states that the process does not require repeated efforts, but is instead an immediate reaction to a familiar stimulus.
- 3Skinner Beginnings of the Rat & Food ExperimentIn an experiment with a rat using food as a reward (which would work for many of us, as well!):
• The rat was placed in a box
• Over the course of a few days, food was occasionally delivered through an automatic dispenser
• Before long, the rat approached the food tray as soon as the sound of the dispenser was heard, clearly anticipating the arrival of more food - 4Skinner The Next Step of the ExperimentResearchers raised a small lever on the wall of the box and when the rat touched it, the food dispenser provided a snack. After the first self-induced meal, the rat repeatedly touched the lever in order to get more food (smart rat!)
To the hungry rodent, the sound of the dispenser became a reinforce when it was first associated with feedings and continued to be so until after a while, researchers stopped providing food when the lever was pressed. Soon after that, the rat stopped touching the lever. - 5Skinner Positive and Negative Reinforces and the Uniqueness of HumansReinforces can be positive or negative and both are used to strengthen behaviour. Unlike animals, humans (the big ones as well as the little ones) often respond to verbal operands by:
• taking advice
• listening to the warnings of others
• and obeying given rules and laws
Even without having personally experienced any negative consequences from disobeying. - 6Skinner The Rat Experiment and Negative ReinforcementSkinner again experimented with rats to show how negative reinforcement can also strengthen behaviour. Skinner placed the rat inside the box and a sent electric current into the box, as the rat moved around the box it would knock the lever by accident and the electric current would stop. The rats soon learned that when they were placed in the box to go straight to the lever to turn off the electric current. Knowing they could escape the electric current caused the rats to repeatedly go to the lever.
- 7Skinner Escape Learning and Avoidance LearningThe responses that the rats demonstrated are called; Escape learning and Avoidance learning
1. Escape learning because the rats learned to press the lever in order to escape the current
And
2. Avoidance learning because the rats learned to press the lever when the light came on thus avoiding the current altogether - 8Skinner How Does All This Relate to Children?One of the aspects important to human behaviour, though, is the feelings associated with behaviour that is controlled by conditioning. When previous behaviours have been rewarded, children are likely to repeat those behaviours happily and willingly, feeling that they are doing what they 'want' to be doing. If, on the other hand, children choose behaviours in order to avoid a repeat of negative reinforcement, they may behave appropriately, but will be inclined to feel that their freedoms are being suppressed. In reality, the actual freedom still exists, of course. Children, like the rest of us, are free to behave in any manner that they choose, as long as they are willing to accept the consequences of their actions.
- 9VygotskyThe work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as Social Development Theory. Vygotsky theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."Unlike Piaget's notion that children’s' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90).
- 10VygotskyIn other words, social learning tends to proceed (i.e. come before) development. Vygotsky has developed a socio-cultural approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as Jean was starting to develop his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at the age of 38 and so his theories are incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian. No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes.
- 11ChomskyLanguage is a cognition that truly makes us human. Whereas other species do communicate with an innate ability to produce a limited number of meaningful vocalizations (e.g. bonobos), or even with partially learned systems (e.g. bird songs), there is no other species known to date that can express infinite ideas (sentences) with a limited set of symbols (speech sounds and words).This ability is remarkable in itself. What makes it even more remarkable is that researchers are finding evidence for mastery of this complex skill in increasingly younger children.
- 12Chomsky. Infants as young as 12 months are reported to have sensitivity to the grammar needed to understand causative sentences (who did what to whom; e.g. the bunny pushed the frog (Rowland & Noble, 2010).After more than 60 years of research into child language development, the mechanism that enables children to segment syllables and words out of the strings of sounds they hear, and to acquire grammar to understand and produce language is still quite an enigma.
- 13EriksonErik Erikson (1950, 1963) does not talk about psychosexual Stages, he discusses psychosocial stages. His ideas, though, were greatly influenced by Freud, going along with Freud’s (1923) ideas about the structure and topography of personality. However, whereas Freud was an id psychologist, Erikson was an ego psychologist.
- 14ChomskyHe emphasized the role of culture and society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego itself, whereas Freud emphasized the conflict between the superegos. According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future.
- 15EriksonHe emphasized the role of culture and society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego itself, whereas Freud emphasized the conflict between the superegos. According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future.
- 16EricsonErikson extends on Freudian thoughts by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic of the ego, and expanding the notion of the stages of personality development to include the entire lifespan. Erikson proposed a lifespan model of development, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood.
- 17Erikson. Erikson suggests that there is still plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s life. Erikson put a great deal of emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a person’s identity. Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage.
- 18EricsonThis is called the epigamic principle. The outcome of this 'maturation timetable' is a wide and integrated set of life skills and abilities that function together within the autonomous individual. However, instead of focusing on sexual development (like Freud), he was interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of self.
- 19BowlbyJohn Bowlby (1907 - 1990) was a psychoanalyst (like Freud) and believed that mental health and behavioural problems could be attributed to early childhood. Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive. Bowlby was very much influenced by ethological theory in general, but especially by Lorenz’s (1935) study of imprinting.
- 20Bowlby. Lorenz showed that attachment was innate (in young ducklings) and therefore has a survival value. Bowlby believed that attachment behaviours are instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that seem to threaten the achievement of proximity, such as separation, insecurity and fear.
- 21Bowlby. Bowlby (1969, 1988) also postulated that the fear of strangers represents an important survival mechanism, built in by nature. Babies are born with the tendency to display certain innate behaviours (called social releasers) which help ensure proximity and contact with the mother or attachment figure (e.g. crying, smiling, crawling, etc.) – these are species-specific behaviours.
- 22BowlbyDuring the evolution of the human species, it would have been the babies who stayed close to their mothers that would have survived to have children of their own. Bowlby hypothesized that both infants and mothers have evolved a biological need to stay in contact with each other
- 23Bowlby. These attachment behaviours initially function like fixed action patterns and all share the same function. The infant produces innate ‘social releaser’ behaviours such as crying and smiling that stimulate care giving from adults. The determinant of attachment is not food but care and responsiveness. Bowlby suggested that a child would initially form only one attachment and that the attachment figure acted as a secure base for exploring the world. The attachment relationship acts as a prototype for all future social relationships so disrupting it can have severe consequences.
- 24AinsworthJohn Bowlby (1969) believed that attachment was an all or nothing process. However, research has shown that there are individual differences in attachment quality. Indeed one of the primary paradigms in attachment theory is that of the security of an individual’s attachment (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). Much research in psychology has focused on how forms of attachment differ between infants
- 25AinsworthJohn Bowlby (1969) believed that attachment was an all or nothing process. However, research has shown that there are individual differences in attachment quality. Indeed one of the primary paradigms in attachment theory is that of the security of an individual’s attachment (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). Much research in psychology has focused on how forms of attachment differ between infants
- 26AinsworthFor example, Schaffer and Emerson (1964) discovered what appeared to be innate differences in sociability in babies; some babies preferred cuddling more than others, from very early on, before much interaction had occurred to cause such differences. However, it was probably the psychologist Mary Ainsworth (1913 - 1999) who provided the most famous body of research offering explanations of individual differences in attachment.
- 27AinsworthIt’s easy enough to know when you are attached to someone because you know how you feel when you are apart from that person, and, being an adult, you can put your feelings into words and describe how it feels. However, most attachment research is carried out using infants and young children, so psychologists have to devise subtle ways of researching attachment styles, usually involving the observational method.
- 28AinsworthPsychologist Mary Ainsworth devised an assessment technique called the Strange Situation Classification (SSC) in order to investigate how attachments might vary between children. The Strange Situation was devised by Ainsworth & Wittig (1969) and was based on Ainsworth’s previous Uganda (1967) and later Baltimore studies (Ainsworth et al., 1971, 1978).
- 29PartenStages of play are a theory and classification of children's participation in play developed by Mildred Parten in 1932. Parten observed American preschool age (ages 2 to 5) children at free play (defined as anything unrelated to survival, production or profit).
- 30Parten• Unoccupied (play) – when the child is not playing, just observing. A child may be standing in one spot or performing random movements.
- 31Parten• Solitary (independent) play – when the child is alone and maintains focus on its activity. Such a child is uninterested in or is unaware of what others are doing. More common in younger children (age 2–3) as opposed to older ones
- 32Parten• Onlooker plays (behaviour) – when the child watches others at play but does not engage in it. The child may engage in forms of social interaction, such as conversation about the play, without actually joining in the activity. This type of activity is also more common in younger children.
- 33Parten• Parallel play (adjacent play, social coactions) – when the child plays separately from others but close to them and mimicking their actions. This type of play is seen as a transitory stage from a socially immature solitary and onlooker type of play, to a more socially mature associative and cooperative type of play.
- 34Parten• Associative play – when the child is interested in the people playing but not in coordinating their activities with those people, or when there is no organized activity at all. There is a substantial amount of interaction involved, but the activities are not in sync
- 35Parten• Cooperative play – when a child is interested both in the people playing and in the activity they are doing. In cooperative play, the activity is organized, and participants have assigned roles. There is also increased self-identification with a group, and a group identity may emerge. This is relatively uncommon in the preschool and Kindergarten years, because it requires the most social maturity and more advanced organization skills. Examples would be dramatic play activities with roles, like playing school, or a game with rules, such as freeze tag.
Informationen
- Beschreibung
- Skinner Vygotsky Chomsky Erikson Bowlby Ainsworth Parten
- Erstellt von
- elishakatierose · Jan 2015
- Aktualisiert
- 16 Jan 2017
- Aufrufe
- 23
- Bewertung