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Physiology term 2 flashcards
Karten in diesem Stapel (165)
- 14 things the CVD system transportsCO2
Os
Heat
Hormones - 2PlasmaFluid in which cells and platelets = suspended containing solutes and proteins.
- 3What are the 2 branches of the CV system?Pulmonary and systemic
- 4Does slow depolarisation to the threshold take place in pacemaker or contractile cardiac cells? And what is it caused by?Pacemaker
Influx of Na - 5What ion causes the rising phase of the AP in a SA node cell?Ca2+
- 6Refractory periodThe time following an AP during which normal stimulation cannot trigger a second AP.
- 7What is the RMP of a cardiac contractile cell?-90mV
- 8Force generated by cardiac muscle is proportional toNumber of active cross bridges.
- 9What is the diacrotic notch caused by?The SL valves closing at the start of diastole and backflow of blood pushing against them when the pressure drops in the ventricles.
- 10Blood P = (formula)SP / DP
- 11Pulse pressure = (formula)SP - DP
- 12MAP = (formula)DP + (SP-DP)/3
- 13EDV =Vol of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole.
- 14Stroke volVol of blood ejected per beat.
It is the vol in the heart just before ejection (EDV) munis vol of blood just after it (ESV) - 15Ejection fraction =% of EDV ejected in 1 contraction
SV/EDV - 16What causes heart sounds?Turbulent flow of blood against closed valves just after they have shut.
- 17What does an ECG record?Overall spread of electric current as a function of time.
- 18Electrode LeadsLL = +ve earth
RA = always -ve
1 = arm to arm
2 = RA=LL
3 = LA-LL - 19Arrhythmia =Abnormal heart rhythm
- 20FibrillationUncoordinated chaotic contraction
- 21Heart blockDefect in the cardiac conducting system
- 22Tachychardia vs bradycardiaHigh vs Low HR
- 23Myocardial infarctionDeath or necrosis of heart muscle
- 24COVolume of blood pumped out of each ventricle per min
SV x HR - 25Intrinsic control of HR is related toExtent of venous return
- 26Extrinsic control of HR is related toExtent of sympathetic stimulation
- 27Preload on the heart =Degree of myocardial stretch before contraction.
- 28SV is proportional toEDV
- 29Which way do catecholamines shift the frank-starling curve? And therefore what does that show they do?Left - showing they increase contractility of the heart as they increase SV for the same EDV.
- 30Force generated by a cardiac muscle is proportional toInitial length of muscle fibre
- 31Contractility =The strength of contraction at any given EDV
- 32If contractility of the heart decreases this is indicative ofHeart failure.
- 33Baroreceptors =Sensory non-encapsulated nerve endings located in adventitial layer arteries - aortic arch + carotid sinus
- 34Carotid barerecs measure blood flow toThe brain
- 35Aoritc barerecs measure blood flow toThe body
- 36Are the aoritc and carotid recs tonically acitve or not?Yes tonic
- 37Barorec unloading =Taking away the signal because of lower pressure.
E.g. during haemorrhage. - 38Why after a haemorrhage does the body not aim to return BP back to the normal level??This would shut off the reflex response so it deliberately keeps ABP below the original level to keep the mechanisms to cope with loss of blood activated until the blood is replaced.
- 39Control of SV is byIntrinsic myocardial response to stretch / EDV
Extrinsic autonomic stimulation - 40Control of HR is byAUtonomic
- 41Resistance is proportional to1/r^4
Also change in P / R - 42Artery characteristicsLarge diameter
High elastic tissue
Stiff and flexible
Pressure reservoirs (stored pressure energy in its stretched walls)
Low resistance
Low compliance (prefers to recoil rather than stretch) - 43Arteriole characteristicsMajor resistance vessels because of small radius
Marked drop in MAP in them
Converts pressure swing from arteries to constant capillary pressure
Has rings of smooth muscle to change their diameter (which dampen the pressure fluctuations as said above)
Highly flexible
Little elastic
Vascular tone
Diameter stimulated by NO release on symp stim. - 44Capillary characteristicsExchange of material
Extensive branching
No carrier-mediated transport systems
High SA:V
1 endothelial layer
Only as wide as 1 RBC
slow velocity of flow - 45Levels of leakiness of capillaryContinuous - has pores, cells held tightly together
Fenestrated - bigger holes in between cells
Discontinuous - Gaps are so large thy don't look like the same vessel. - 46Flow rateVolume of blood that passes a given point in the system per unit time
(the same over the whole system) - 47Velocity of flow varies inversely toCSA
- 48V =Q/A
(flow rate/CSA) - 49Characteristics of veinsLow BP
One way valves - in peripheral veins
Thin walls and elastic tissue
No valves in central veins
Volume reservoirs
High compliance - as low elastic recoil
Small pressure changes cause a large stretch. - 50BPForce exerted by blood against a vessel
- 51TPRCombined resistance of all organs, inc'ing blood vessels.
- 52Increasing TPR ____es MAPIncreases
- 53MAP =CO x TPR
- 54Net pressure = (in a capillary)Hydrostatic caillary pressure - plasmoid colloid osmotic pressure
H.static P in IF = 0
Colloid osmotic pressure in IF is low so it only acts by the plasma drawing water in not the IF drawing water out. - 55Net filtration happens in theArteries
- 56Net absorption happens in thecapillaries/veins
- 57Bulk flow =Difference in h.static and osmotic pressure between plasma and interstitial fluid.
- 58Net out of a cap = calledFiltration
- 59Hydrostatic pressure =Pressure of a fluid on the space around it.
- 60MorulaPre-blastocyst spherical ball of totipotent cells.
- 61Innate vs adaptive im sNatural vs acquired
- 62CytokineA secreted protein that stimulates / inihibits cell diff and prolif
- 63InterleukinGroup of cytokines that enable communication between leukocytes
- 64ChemoikinesA structurally related substance that induces chemotaxis and activation of leukocytes.
- 65InterferonsSoluble glycoproteins with antiviral properties
- 66AntibodiesMain-chain gylcoproteins that are produced by B lymphocytes containing a variable antigen binding site and a constant region.
- 67ComplementSoluble proteins that complement the action antibodies in a cascade of enzymes that can kill pathogens by punching holes in target membranes.
They = pro-enzymes which are activated by being cleaved into a smaller a fragment and the large b fragment. - 68LeukocyteAny cell with a nucleus in the blood.
- 69T & B cells are from the common cell:'lymphoid progenator'
- 70What receptors do T cells have?CD4/8
TCR
CD40L - transiently expressed to bind B cell.
CD28 - bound to B7 on B cell when it stimulate the T cell. - 71What receptors do B cells have?BCR / Ig
CD40
B7 - binds CD28 on T - 72Cytokines released to cause class switching to; IgE, IgA and IgGIgE -> IL4
IgA -> TGF beta
IgG -> IFN gamma - 73What do resting T and B cells have?Large nucleus and little cytoplasm.
- 74How can you distinguish and active B and T cell?Active B cell has extensive gogi and ER
- 75What are pattern recognition receptors, give an example.They are surface cell receptors that recognise non-self pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs).
E.g. Toll-like receptors, TLRs
NOD-like receptors. - 76NK cells are AKAType I Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs)
- 77What do active NK cells release and what does it do?The release IFN gamma to protect surrounding cells by enhancing development of specific T cell responses directed to virus-infected cells.
- 78What receptors do NK cells have?KIRs
Killer-cell inhibitory receptors - 793 types of dendritic cellLangerhan
Interdigitation
Follicular dendritic cells - 80Explain how DC cells represent the link between innate and adaptive immune systemsThe detect pathogens via innate receptors and present them vie endogenous processing to T and B cells to stimulate the specific immune response.
- 814 phagocytesMonocytes
Macrophages
Neutrophils (most abundant)
DCs - 82Trade mark of a neutrophilMulti-lobed nucleus
- 83Perforin = forPunching holes in a cell membrane
- 84Granzymes =Proteolytic enzymes that move through the holes perforin makes.
- 85Granules contain: (3)Peroxidase
Alkaline and acid phosphatases
Defensins - 86Neutrophils = attracted to bacterial chemical products. This phenomenon = called...Chemotaxis
- 87Following phagocytosis what do neutrophils do to kill the microbe it has ingested?Produces an oxidative burst of O2
- 88Process of phagocytosisPhagocyte moves to microbe by chemotaxic signalling
Attaches by sugars, complement and Fc receptors
Endocytoses by invagination of the membrane.
Phagosome fuses w/ a lysosome.
Microbe = killed by O2/ NO - 894 granulocytesEosinophils
Basophils
Mast cells
Neutrophils - 90What = an Eosinophil responsible for?Killing large extracellular parasites that cannot be phagocytosed.
- 91Roles of complementOpsoniztation (by C3b)
Clumping of pathogens
Anaphylotoxins
Increase inflammation by activating mast cells and increasing blood supply in that area.
Killing of microbes. - 92OpsonisationProcess of makinga microbe easier to phagocytos.
Opsins and complement C3b aids attachment of microbes to phagocytes. - 93What is the Fc region?The constant region on an Ig which determines its biological properties.
- 94Which enzyme is involved in alternate splicing for isotype switching?AID
- 95When IgM/IgG attach to an antigen what happens, in terms of complementThe classical pathway of complement is activated leading to complement-mediated lysis of the microbe on which the antigen was located.
- 96How many chains make up an Ig4
- 97CDR stands forComplementary Determining Region
- 98Anti-b variable region varies because ofRecombination of genetic elements (V, D & J)
- 99Which Ig's are present on naive B cells?IgM and IgD
- 100IgM = good at _____ and had a ____ shapeComplement activation
Pentameric - 101IgA is good for And is ____icMucosal surfaces
Dimeric - 102IgG is good at activatingNK cells
- 103IgE = good at activatingMast cells
- 104What 2 things in a secondary immune response make the antibodies different?Isotype switching
Affinity Maturation - V regions have undergone somatic mutation. - 105What is allelic exclusion?Excluding other arrangements of variable region once an Ig had committed to a particular one. There is then active repression of further recombination.
- 1064 reason why Ig V region = variablePolygenic - V, D and J code for it
Polymorphic - many alleles of each can be used
They are joined in many combinations
Imprecise joining of them - 1072 primary lymphoid tissuesBone marrow and thymus
- 1083 secondary lymphoid tissuesLymph nodes
MALT
spleen - 109Talk about the bone marrowProduces progenators of the haematopoietic system
Wher initial B cell selection takes place
Partially mature B cells are exported from there
Pre-T cells migrate from here to the thymus. - 110Talk about the thymusHas small lobules of medullary (inside) and cortical (outside) cells.
Site of T cell selection and maturation.
Lymphocyte rich - 111T cell selection and maturationDouble -ve T cells enter at the corticomedullary junction and transverse up through the cortex.
TCR is manufactured and it becomes double +ve
Cortical epithelial cell presents MHC's and determines if TCR binds at the correct strength to non-self antigens - +ve selection.
Next the T cell moves to the medulla and an MEC presents self antigens and kills T cells which bind - -ve selection.
MEC and CEC also release thymosina and thymopoietin.
Before the cell leaves the medulla is loses one of CD4/8.
Mature naive T cell then leaves. - 112SpleenMonitors systemic circulation.
Only has an efferent lymphatic system (unlike lymphnodes)
Traps blood borne microbes and produces an immune response. Consists of organised islands of white pulp (lymphoid tissue) in red pulp (has RBCs) - 113Lymphatic systemSmall blind-ended vessels draining from tissue into lymph nodes (afferent)
and from lymph nodes into efferent vessles
Has follicles with germinal centres which are the site of antigen-dep B cell proliferation.
Paracortext = mainly T cells
Cortex = mainly B cells - 114What things are involved in lymphocyte migration? And which is for rolling and which is for arrest?L-selectins - rolling
Integrins - arrest - 1153 main functions of Ig'sOpsonisation
Neutralisation
Complement activation - 116What happens to primary lymphoid follicles during an immune response?They develop germinal centres and become secondary follicles.
- 117Class I & II MHC processing pathway Which = exo and which = endo =genous?I = Endo
II = Exo - 118MHC loci complex in man =HLA
- 119Graft types: Autologous; allogenic, syngenicFrom self, genetically different person, genetically identical person
- 120Is it B or T cells that require MHC's to 'see' antigens?T
(B cells 'see' them w/ their BCR's and then use their MHCII's to present the antigen for T cells). - 121Describe the structure of an MHCI1 heavy chain with 3 alpha domains
1 beta-2 microglobulin not encoded by MHC
Peptide binding groove is made from only the alpha chain and bonds 9-11 AA peptides very tightly.
Only one (alpha) chain is anchored into the membrane. - 122Describe the structure of an MHCII2 MHC chains, both forming the peptide binding groove
Peptide binding = loose and wider with the peptide hanging out.
Both chains are anchored into the membrane. - 123What are the MHC I + II genes?I: HLA-A, B, C
II: HLA-DP, DQ, DR - 124Two ways MHC's = diversePolygenic (+ genes are codominant)
Polymorphic - 125How are MHC genes inherited?As a haplotype
- 126HaplotypeA combination of encoded alleles w/in an MHC locus
- 127MHC expressionI -> all nucleated cells
II -> APCs - macrophages, B cells etc. - 128MHC has ____ ______ preference for the sort of peptide it is trying to presentAllelic peptide preference
- 129TAP 1+2 = genes forA peptide transporter
- 130LMP = gene forProteasome
- 1313 mechanisms of asexual reproductionFission
Budding
Fragmentation - 132ParthenogenesisOrganisms that produce offspring via an egg without fertilisation
- 1333 modes of internal fertilisationOviparous
Viviparous
Ovoviviparous - 134Oviparous (inc eg. organisms)Produce eggs
E.g. reptiles and birds - 135ViviparousLive young
Eutherian - w/ true placenta
or metatherians - marsupials w/ no placenta - 136OvoviviparousYoung = in eggs but held in the mother's body and hatch there before they are born.
No uterus or placenta
E.g. some fish and amphibians - 1374 mating systemsMonogamy - 1 partner
Promiscuous - live in groups and mate randomly with different partners
Polyandry - 1F lots of Ms
Polygyny - Lots of Fs, 1 Ms - 138Female choice caises...sexual dimorphism
- 139What does sexual dimorphism allow?Genders to advertise to each other and males to compete with each other.
- 140Gonads =Organs that produce gamtese
- 141HermaphroditismA variation on sexual reproduction
- 1422 types of hermaphroditismSimultaneous or sequential
- 143Testosterone = produced by which cells?Leidig
- 144AMH = produced by which cells?Sertoli cells
- 145Production of gametes = under ____ controlEndocrine
- 146Which 3 glands are involved in production of hormones for gametogenesisHypothalamus
Pituitary
Gonads - 147Steriod hormones = derived from...Cholesterol
- 148GnRH release causes release ofLH and FSH
- 149LH and FSH are from the ____ glandAnterior pituitary
- 1505 functions of testosteroneMasculinises tract
Promotes descent of testes
Development of secondary sexual characteristics
Sex drive at puberty - 151The 3 major steps of spermatogenesis1) Mitotic division
2) Meiotic division (x2)
3) Cytodifferentiation - 1521 spermatogonium : _ sprematozoa4
- 153Sperm are stored and concentrated inEpididymis and ductus deferens
- 154The release of sprem 4 phasesExcitation
Plateau
Orgasmic
Resolution - 155OestrogenResponsibly for ova maturation
Female secondary sexual characteristics
Feedback on pituitary gonads - 156ProgesteroneEffect on uterus
Feedback on pituitary gonads
Thermogenic - 1571 oocyte : __ ovum1
- 158oogonium -> ovum stagesoogonium, primary oocyte, enlarged oocyte, secondary oocyte, mature ovum.
- 159How can you clinically test for ovulation?Endometrium biopsy
Cervical mucus
Body temperature
Hormone levels - 160Uterine endometrium =lining of the uterus
- 161What releases GnRH?Hypothalamus
- 162What causes the LH surge?A switch from negative to positive feedback of Oe on LH when [Oe] gets very high.
- 163What prevents a continual LH surge?Progesterone, decreasing the Oe positive feedback on LH.
- 164ART =Assisted reproductive therapy
- 165Which cells surround an egg? And what layer surround it to prevent polyspermy?Corona radiata
ZOna pelucida
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- Year 1 Uni Karteikarten am Physiology term 2 flashcards, erstellt von J000D97 am 11/04/2016.
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