Karteikarten
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Karten in diesem Stapel (185)
- 1Synonymy (total vs. near)Two or more words that have the same meaning; they usually differ in social and effective meaning and in use
(clever and smart) - 2HyponomyOne word is a kind of another word, hierarchical relationship between hyponym(specific) and hyperonym(general)
apple is a kind of an fruit - 3Meronomywords related in a part/whole relationship
(finger and hand) - 4Oppositionswords that have opposite meanings
- 5Antonomy (Opposition)relationship between terms with complementary meanings
(one word is the opposite of another) - 6Gradable Antonomy (Opposition)opposite ends of continous scale of values
(large and small) - 7Non-gradable Antonomy (Opposition)Mutually exclusive and complementary
(dead and alive) - 8Converseness (Opposition)the same relation is expressed from different perspectives
(husband and wife) - 9Reverseness (Opposition)Relation between directional opposites, especially of movement
(come and go) - 10ReferenceOne concrete reference of a linguistic expression to a person, event, action, state, etc. in the real world
- 11SenseDescriptive meaning of a word independent of context or referent and independent of utterance and situational context
- 12ExtensionGroup of all objects a linguistic term may refer to; set of all possible referents for a linguistic expression
- 13IntensionCharacteristic features determining the sense of a linguistic term
- 14ConnotationAdditional meaning, context specific;
affective and social meaning - 15DenotationReferential meaning; constant, abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression
- 16SemanticsStudy of the systematic ways in which languages structure meaning.
-Examines word and sentence meaning -Abstracts away from context - 17Semiotic Triangle by Odgen/Richardseinfügen!!!
- 18HomonymyWord with the same written and/or spoken form but different meanings
- 19Total HomonymySame spelling and pronunciation
(mole and mole) - 20Homograph (Homonymy)Different pronunciation, same spelling (tear(V) and tear(N))
- 21Homophone (Homonymy)Different spelling, same pronunciation (knight and night)
- 22Polysemyword with more than one meaning;
the meanings are interrelated
(one entry in the dictionary)
(foot(of a mountain)) - 23Sentence SemanticsExamines meaning relation within
and across sentences - 24Paradigmatic relations (word choice)Vertical relation between all members
of a semantic field that are of the same lexical category; elements are interchangeable (walk and run) - 25Syntagmatic relationschoice of word in a certain combination with other words
E.g.: The president was assassinated
versus
Many people were killed - 26Thematic RoleThe way in which the referent of an argument contributes to the state,
action or situation described by the predicate - 27AgentThe responsible initiator of an action
(PETER injured Harry.) - 28PatientThe person or thing undergoing the effect of some action, often including change
(Peter injured HARRY.) - 29ThemeThe person or thing moved by the action
(He gave THE BOOK to Jane) - 30ExperiencerThe person or thing experiencing apsychological or physical state
(MRS. MILLER had been cold all day) - 31RecipientThe person who receives a physical object
(He gave the book to JANE.) - 32BenefactiveThe person for whom an action is performed
(They planned a party for MARY) - 33InstrumentThe intermediary through which an action is performed
(He opened the door with A KEY.) - 34GoalThe entity at which the action is directed
(Harry rolled the ball towards PETER.) - 35Source“Starting point” of the action
(Peter bought the book from MARY.) - 36CauseAny natural force that brings about a change of state
(THE WIND broke the window.) - 37LocativeA location of an action or state
(LONDON attracts tourists.) - 38TemporalThe time at which the action or state occurred
(She left home YESTERDAY.) - 39Constructional MeaningStructural patterns are capable of carrying meaning themselves
- 40Caused Motion Construction
- 41Ditransitive Construction
- 42Entailmentp: Someone murdered JFK.
q: JFK is dead
- 43Presuppositionp: The king of France is bald.
q:There is a king of France
(?(T/F)= Truth Value Gap)
- 44Pragmaticsrelationship between language
and its user with a certain intention
It includes the linguistic and non-linguistic context in the interpretation of meaning - 45Prototype TheoryInvestigates how members of a
category are conceptualized - 46Prototypical membership...cannot be defined by means of a single set of criteria (necessary and sufficient attributes).
...is gradable: Members exhibit degrees of category membership.
...are blurred at the edges; no clear-cut boundaries (fuzziness) - 47Prototypical members (Good Examples)
- 48Marginal Members (Bad Examples)
- 49Conceptual MetaphorStructural mapping from one conceptual domain to another
The concrete knowledge is taken from a specified source domain (‘vehicle’) and
used to comprehend a target domain (‘tenor’). - 50Prices rise / fall (Conceptual Metaphor)Source domain: verticality (UP -DOWN)
Target domain: quantity (UP corresponds to MORE, DOWN to LESS) - 51Spatial MetaphorsWords that are primarily associated with
a spatial orientation are used to talk about
physical and psychological states.
Spatial orientation:UP-DOWN, IN-OUT, FRONT-BACK, ON-OFF, DEEP-SHALLOW, CENTRAL-PERIPHERAL - 52Motion VerbsVerbs that express motion include language specific conflation patterns of motion, path and manner
In English, single verb meanings often consist of both, motionand manner.(march, run) - 53Information Structure-New versus given information
(Mary versus she)
-Pronouns always need referent which are given information
-Topic versus comment - 54DeixisMarks the orientation or position of entities and events with respect to certain points of reference
- 55Spatial DeixisOrientation in space
(here, there) - 56Temporal DeixisOrientation in time
(yesterday, before, tense) - 57Personal DeixisOrientation of utterances with respect to ourselves, our interlocutors or third parties
(me, you, they) - 58The Cooperative Principle“Make your contribution appropriate to the conversation.”
= People co-operate with each other so that communication becomes efficient.
People don’t misinterpret utterances.
rely on certain interpretative conventions. - 59Conversational Maxims
- 60Flouting of conversational maximsvery obvious non-observance of a maxim
which is intended to prompt the hearer to look for a meaning different from the literal one
(→conversational implicatures) - 61Conversational implicatureBy flouting a maxim, speaker generates a conversational implicature in a particular context; additional meaning is implied.
listener interprets meaning with help of the context; additional meaning is inferred - 62Speech ActsActions that are carried out through language;basic units of communication/ utterance(unit of speech)
- 63Locution-The grammatical structure and a linguistic (literal) meaning
-The physical act of producing an utterance = utterance act - 64Illocution-Using a sentence to perform a function
-Speaker’s intention of an utterance - 65Perlocution-Results or effects that are produced by means of saying something
-The reaction to an illocution = uptake - 66Direct Speech ActA direct relationship exists between the structural form (locution) and the communicative function (illocution) of an utterance
E.g.:The use of an interrogative form to ask a question
Where is the key? - 67Indirect Speech ActAn indirect relationship exists between the structural form (locution) and the communicative function (illocution) of an utterance
E.g.:The use of an interrogative form to make a request
Can you shut the window? - 68PolitenessShowing consideration, tact, deference, or courtesy to others; people’s attitude towards face
- 69Positive PolitenessShowing solidarity with another
- 70Negative PolitenessAwareness of another’s right not to be imposed on
(Excuse me...) - 71FaceReputation, good name; every individual’s feeling of self-worth or
self-image; utterances can damage face (speaker + listener) - 72Positive FaceDesire to be liked, approved of,
appreciated - 73Negative FaceDesire not to be impeded upon, to be respected, freedomn of choice of action
- 74Diachronic LinguisticsDescribes and explains language
change (over time) by comparing synchronous stages of languages - 75Synchronic LinguisticsStudies the state of a language/variety
at a particular period of time - 76Development of English
- 77AssimilationTwo (usually adjacent) segments become more similar due to a simplification of articulatory movements
pd->pt
+voi, -voi-> -voi, -voi - 78DissimilationOne segment is made less like another segment in its environment
(e.g., Late Latin anma> Spanish alma ‘soul’) - 79EpenthesisA consonant or vowel is inserted into a particular environment
(e.g., simle> simble ‘always’)
to serve as a bridge - 80MetathesisRelative positioning of segments is changed
(wæps> wæsp ‘wasp’) - 81SyncopeDeletion of word-internal vowel
(e.g., stānas [ɑ]> stones [ə]> stones ø)
weakening+deletion - 82ApocopeDeletion of final vowel
(e.g., nama[ɑ]> name[ə]> nameø)
weakening+deletion - 83RhotacismConsonant weakening that typically involves a change from [z] to [r]
(e.g., maiza > more) - 84DeaffricationAffricates are turned into fricatives by eliminating the stop portion of the affricate
(e.g., French: gent [ʤ]> gent [ʒ]‘people, tribe’) - 85SubstitutionOne segment is replaced by another similar-sounding segment auditorily based change
(e.g., laugh[x] > laugh[f]) - 86SplitAllophones of the same phoneme come to contrast with each other due to loss of
conditioning environment, resulting in new phoneme(s)
(e.g., [ŋ] and [n]) - 87MergerTwo or more phonemes collapse into a single one, reducing the number of phonemes in the language
(e.g., th-fronting in Cockney English) - 88ShiftA series of phonemes is systematically modified, resulting in an alteration of their
organisation with respect to each other - 89Great Vowel ShiftRaising of long vowels and pronunciation like another vowel higher in the system
Diphthongisation of /i:/ and /u:/ - 90Superstratum (Borrowing)Words from dominant language are borrowed for non-dominant language
- 91Adstratum (Borrowing)Bidirectional borrowing
(two dominant languages: borrowing from both) - 92SubstratumWords from non-dominant language are borrowed for dominant language
- 93Semantic BroadeningThe meaning of a word becomes more general or more inclusive
(e.g., aunt: ‘father’s sister’ > ‘father or mother’ssister’) - 94Semantic NarrowingThe meaning of a word becomes less general or less inclusive
(e.g., hound: ‘any dog’ > ‘a hunting breed’) - 95AmeliorationThe meaning of a word becomes more positive or more favourable
(e.g., knight: ‘boy’ > ‘a special title or position’) - 96PejorationThe meaning of a word becomes less positive or less favourable
(e.g., wench: ‘girl’ > ‘wanton woman, prostitute’) - 97WeakeningThe meaning of a word is weakened
(e.g.,due to frequent exaggeration; soon: 'immediately’ > ‘in the near future’) - 98Semantic ShiftA word loses its former meaning and takes on a new (often related) meaning
(e.g., gay: ‘lively, happy’ > ‘homosexual’ > foryounger speakers ‘bad’) - 99MetaphorA word with a concrete meaning takes on a more abstract sense, based on metaphorical use
(e.g., yarn: ‘spun thread used for knitting etc.’ + ‘story’) - 100Lexical DiffusionA linguistic change first manifests itself in a few words and then spreads through the vocabulary of the language gradually
(e.g., stress change in conversion)→Gradual change - 101Sound Changesusually affect all instances of the involved segment immediately
(e.g., th-fronting in Cockney) - 102DialectsMutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways
(e.g., house: /haʊs/ vs. /aʊs/; a sweet drink with bubbles: ‘soda’ vs. ‘pop’) - 103Genetic Classification of LanguageClassification of languages according to their degree of diachronic relatedness (→ancestor language)
E.g.: The Indo-European family > Germanic > West Germanic languages: English, German, Dutch - 104Areal Classification of LanguageClassification of languages according to structural features shared across language boundaries within a geographical area (→geographical proximity)
-Areal classification may not overlap perfectly with genetic classification - 105Typological Classification of Language (preferred by Linguists)Classification of languages according to their structural characteristics in phonology, morphology and syntax (→grammatical characteristics)
- 106Vowel Systems (T.C, Phonology)Languages can be classified according to the size and pattern of their vowel systems.
- 107Consonant Systems (T.C, Phonology)Languages can be classified according to the characteristics of their consonants
- 108Suprasegmental Systems (T.C, Phonology)Tone languagescan be classified on the basis of two types of tones: Level tones (high, mid and low tones) and contour tones (rising and falling tones).
- 109Syllable Structure (T.C, Phonology)Languages can be classified according to how onsets and codas are structured
(e.g., consonant clusters in codas and onsets). - 110MorphologyLanguages are classified according to the way in which they put morphemes together to form words
- 111Isolating Languages (T.C, Morphology)These languages are made up of sequences of free morphemes. Every meaningful element in the sentence is a separate word.
- 112Polysynthetic Languages (T.C, Morphology)Single words can consist of several roots and affixes that often express sentential meanings.
Multimorphemic words can be complete sentences. - 113Agglutinating Languages (T.C, Morphology)Words can consist of several morphemes (normally a root and affixes), each of which typically has a single, clearly identifiable function.
Morphological Ideal ->
One morpheme-one meaning - 114Inflectional/Fusional Languages (T.C, Morphology)Words can consist of several morphemes
(normally a root and affixes). Affixes often mark several grammatical categories simultaneously. - 115Word Order (T.C, Syntax)Languages can be classified on the basis of the relative order of the
subject (S), direct object (O) and verb (V).
→6 major word order patterns: SOV (e.g., Turkish), SVO (e.g., English), VSO (e.g., Welsh), VOS, OVS, and OSV - 116Grammatical Hierarchies (T.C, Syntax)Languages can be classified according to the grammatical relations of subject and direct object.
- 117Markedness Differential Hypothesis (T.C, Syntax,Grammatical Hierarchies)Unmarked characteristics are considered to be less complex and/or universally more common than marked characteristics.
- 118Language Universals (T.C)structural patterns and traits that occur in all or most languages
- 119Non-implicational absolute universalsStructural characteristics shared by each
and every language without exception
E.g.: All languages distinguish between three grammatical units: Word, phrase and clause. - 120Non-implicational tendencies (language universals)Structural characteristics shared by most
languages
E.g.: The most commonly occurring vowel phoneme is /a/ - 121Implicational absolute universalsA logical relation of implication between two characteristics that is found in every language
(if X then Y)
E.g.: If a language has inflectional affixes, it will also have derivational affixes - 122Implicational tendencies (language universals)A logical connection between two characteristics that is found in most languages
(if it has x, it tends to have y)
E.g.: Manner adverbs overwhelmingly precede the verb in OV languages and generally follow the verb in VO languages - 123Naturalistic observation (first language acquisition)Researchers observe and record children’s spontaneous utterances.
Naturalistic studies are generally
longitudinal
E.g.: Parental diaries, tape recordings - 124Experimentation (first language acquisition)Researchers make use of specially designed tasks to test children’s
comprehension, production or imitation skills.
studies are generally cross-sectional
E.g.: Picture-choice, elicited production tasks - 125The whole object assumption (Vocab development, aqcuiring word meaning)A new word refers to a whole object.
- 126The type assumption (Vocab development, aqcuiring word meaning)A new word refers to a type of thing, not just to a particular individual
- 127The basic level assumption (Vocab development, aqcuiring word meaning)A new word refers to objects that are alike in basic ways
- 128Overextension (Vocab development, word meaning errors)The meaning of the child’s word is more general or inclusive than that of the corresponding adult form.
E.g.: All furry creatures are cats - 129Underextension (Vocab development, word meaning errors)Themeaning of the child’s word is used in an overly restrictive way.
E.g.: Only Siamese and Persian cats are cats. - 130U shaped development Stage 1 (Morphological Development)Children initially memorise inflected words on a case-by-case basis without regard for general patterns or rules (e.g., feet,drew)
- 131U shaped development Stage 2 (Morphological Development)Children acquire general patterns and rules. They often overgeneralise the rules to irregular words (e.g., foots,drawed) and even to pseudo-words
- 132U shaped development Stage 3 (Morphological Development)Children learn that there are exceptions to the general rules and produce correct word forms (e.g., feet,drew)
- 133Developmental order (Morphological Development)All children typically follow this developmental sequence:
- 134One-word stage (1 -1.5 years) (Syntactic Development)Children produce single-word utterances that function as an entire sentence in adult speech. Comprehension generally precedes production.
E.g.: “Ball”→‘I am throwing the ball’ - 135Two-word stage (1.5 -2 years) (Syntactic Development)Children begin to put words together and produce two-word utterances.
E.g.: “Hit ball”→‘I hit the ball’ - 136Telegraphic stage (2 -2.5 years) (Syntactic Development)Children produce longer and more complex grammatical structures.
E.g.:“Car make noise”→
‘The car is making noise’ - 137Inversion in questions (Syntactic Development, Later development)Children find it easier to carry out the Inversion operation in yes/no-questions than in wh-questions(2.5-4 years).
E.g.: Should I sleep?→Only one MOVEoperation - 138Passives (Syntactic Development, Later development)Although children produce passive sentences from around age three, they have difficulty interpreting passive constructions until age seven
- 139Canonical Sentence Stragey (Syntactic Development)Children expect the first NP to be the agent and the second NP to be the patient
Utterance:The dog was bitten by the cat.
Child’s interpretation: The dog bit the cat - 140Factors in first language acquisitionImitation, Child-directed speech, Feedback, Cognitive Development
- 141Critical Period for LanguageBiologically determined period during which language acquisition must occur in order for language to be learned fully and correctly.
→ ability to acquire a first language begins to decline from age six and is compromised by the onset of puberty - 142Universal GrammarChildren’s genetic endowment for language
Role of inborn knowledge principles common to all human languages - 143First language (L1, mother tongue, or native language)The language(s) a person learned first, as a child growing up.
- 144Second language (L2)A language learned after initial L1 acquisition (includes third, fifth, ...)
- 145Second Language Acquisition (SLA or L2A)The study of how people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or
outside a classroom. - 146Bilingual L1Ais the study of the simultaneous acquisition of two languages from birth.
- 147Transfer (Cross-linguistic influence)The process whereby a feature or rule from a learner’s L1 is carried over to
his/her L2 - 148Positive transfer (Cross-linguistic influence)when an L1 structure or rule is used in
an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate in the L2. - 149Negative transfer (Cross-linguistic influence)when an L1 structure or rule is inappropirately used in an L2 utterance
- 150Interlanguage (Cross-linguistic influence)A system of mental representations influenced by the first and target language (L2)that has features of both.
- 151communicative competence (Ultimate goal of L2 acquisition)knowledge of the core components of the L2 grammar (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics),
ability to use the L2 appropriate to the situation or context - 152L2 morphological development (natural order of morpheme acquisition L2)
- 153Initital State (L2 syntactic development)L2 learners already have knowledge of L1
they may transfer L1 parameter settings into the interlanguage grammar - 154Intermediate State (L2 syntactic development)L2 learners reset the parameter settings when the L2 input does not match theirL1 settings
- 155Full Transfer Full Acces Hypothesis (L2 syntactic development)-The initial state of L2 entails all parameter values of the L1 grammar.
-The L2 grammar has to be restructured in the course of acquisition - 156Subset Principle (L2 syntactic development)Parameter resetting from superset to subset is more difficult than vice versa.
subset:englisch
superset: spanish - 157Feature reassembly (L2 syntactic development)is an alternative to parameter resetting.
→L2 learners need to compare how features are assembled in L1 and L2,
and reconfigure the feature bundles in their L1, in cases where differences exist - 158Ultimate attainment (L2 syntactic development)The level of proficiency which L2 learners reach is highly variable:
▪Native-like competence in L2
▪Fossilization - 159Fossilisation (L2 syntactic development)To become permanently established in the interlanguage of L2 in a form that is deviant from the target-language [L2] norm and that continues to appear in performance regardless of further exposure to the[L2].
- 160Factors affecting Fossilisation (L2 syntactic development)Age
Input
Motivation
Cognitive constraints - 161PsycholinguisticsStudy of the mechanisms and operations involved in producing and understanding
language - 162Cohort model of spoken word recognitionIncoming speech stream is processed incrementally (i.e.,phoneme-by-phoneme).
-fast and unconscious process
-shown by techniques such as gating,
priming and eye-tracking. - 163Speech Errorschange of a single distinctive feature
(e.g.,majolity instead of majority). - 164Lexical decision Task (LDT) (decision if non word or real word)SOUNDS: influenced by phonotactic constraints (i.e., easier to identify words violating syllable structure principles those that are pronounceable).
WORDS: react faster to high
-frequent words and take longer to recognise low-frequency words - 165Whole-form storage and retrieval (Complex words in mental lexicon)Complex words are stored as whole forms and retrieved as such.
The meaning of the form is stored within the lexical entry - 166Storage on components and (de)composition (Complex words in mental lexicon)Complex words are stored as component parts ([[walk]er])
meaning of form is derived from combination of meanings of
component parts (e.g., walk+er= ‘go on foot’ + ‘person who does V’) - 167Self paced reading (SPR) (Neil experiment)SPR studies have shown integration problems due to certain expectations
- 168Late Closure (Garden path sentences)When possible, attach material into the clause or phrase currently being processed
- 169Minimal Attachment (Garden path sentences)Attach incoming material into the phrase currently being constructed.
Only postulate a new syntactic node if absolutely necessary - 170Serial Models (Psycholinguistic Models)▪Assume that language processing
proceeds step-by-step.
▪Only one source of information is
used at a time (e.g., phonological before lexical). - 171Parallel Models (Psycholinguistic Models)-Assume that the different processes take place simultaneously.
-Information is shared between those processes. - 172Neurolinguistic StudiesStudy of how language is represented and processed in the brain
- 173—
- 174Broca’s areaSpeech production
- 175Wernicke’s areaLanguage comprehension
- 176Angular gyrusSemantic processing
- 177Supramarginal gyrusPhonological and articulatory processing
- 178Heschl’s gyrus (primary auditory cortex)Sound recognition
- 179Striate gyrus (primary visual cortex)Visual recognition
- 180Primary motor cortexArticulation
- 181Dichotic ListeningDifferent kinds of stimuli
▪are told to ignore one input and repeat the other.
→Repeating language stimuli played to the right ear is easier.
→Left ear has an advantage for melodies and environmental sounds - 182Split brain studiesCommunication between hemispheres is disrupted.
As a result, split-brain patients are unable to name objects that were only shown in their left visual field - 183AphasiaLoss of certain language abilities as result of brain damage
(e.g., strokes, brain infections, tumours, blows to the head) - 184Broca's AphasiaNon-fluent speech (slow, effortful)
Difficulty producing the phonemes
→Simplification
▪Agrammatism: Omission of function words (→ telegraphic speech) and inflectional affixes ▪Difficulties with complex sentences(Passives) - 185Wernicke's Aphasia▪Fluent speech/No difficulty producing required sounds ▪Difficulty selecting, organising language production ▪Grammatical syntax but semantically unrelated fragments
▪comprehension deficit (→ Responses unrelated to questions
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- Beschreibung
- Anglistik Karteikarten am Lingu, erstellt von Kiara Breßgott am 08/07/2017.
- Erstellt von
- Kiara Breßgott
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