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Karteikarten

BIOL 275

Carlie Hinz Biology Englisch 200 Karten

Karten in diesem Stapel (200)

  1. 1What are toxins?Kill biota by interfering with physiological functions, such as acids, metals, organic compounds, and radioactive substances.
  2. 2When might it be beneficial to consult an ecologist?When developing management policies and practices, such as introducing new species to unfamiliar environments.
  3. 3What are the six levels in the hierarchy of ecology?1. Individual: a single functional unit.
    2. Population: a group of individuals.
    3. Community: a group of populations.
    4. Ecosystem: a group of communities.
    5. Landscape: a group of ecosystems.
    6. Biosphere: a group of landscapes.
  4. 4What is bioaccumulation?Heavy metals accumulate in organisms with higher concentrations in upper trophic levels.
  5. 5Describe the steps of the scientific method.1. Observation.
    2. Development of hypothesis.
    3. Testing hypothesis.
    4. Iteration.
  6. 6In a hypothesis, what are proximate factors and ultimate factors?Proximate factors are questions that deal with how, ultimate factors are questions that deal with why.
  7. 7How does mining affect the environment?Heavy metals such as Hg, Ni, Zn, and Pb are released from smelters and mines which interfere with cellular functions.
  8. 8What are some adaptations to aquatic environments?1) Water and salt balance.
    2) Uptake of gases.
    3) Temperature.
    4) Buoyancy.
  9. 9What are some properties of water?High viscosity, high density, high thermal capacity, and polar molecule.
  10. 10What is acidity?The concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, measured as pH.
  11. 11What is acid rain and how does it affect the environment?Acid rain is sulfuric and nitric acid produced by coal-powered plants, which contributed to tree and aquatic organism deaths by stripping them of nutrients and making them susceptible to disease.
  12. 12What is osmosis?The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a low to high solute concentration.
  13. 13What is osmoregulation?The process organisms use to balance solutes between their internal and external environment.
  14. 14What is the difference between hyperosmotic and hypoosmotic?Hyperosmotic fish have water enter them, like freshwater fish, and their kidneys retain solutes and remove excess water.
    Hypoosmotic fish have water leave them, like saltwater fish, and their kidneys retain water and remove excess solutes.
  15. 15How does road salt affect amphibian populations?Road salt gets washed off into ditches come spring when the ice melts, and the increased lake and pond salinity is linked to a decrease in amphibian populations.
  16. 16Does CO2 dissolve well in water?No.
  17. 17What is a boundary layer?The region of undisturbed air or water around the surface of an object with slow rates of diffusion, boundary layers reduce rates of photosynthesis and are difficult to replenish.
  18. 18What is countercurrent exchange?An adaptation wherein blood and water flow in opposite directions across the gills, which increases O2 uptake in fish.
  19. 19What are some adaptations for low O2 levels in animals?1) Countercurrent exchange.
    2) Lowered activity levels.
    3) Faster movement.
    4) Increased hemoglobin concentration.
    5) Mutualism.
    6) Increased surface area to volume ratio, such as flat or elongated bodies.
  20. 20What are some adaptations for low O2 levels in plants?1) Pneumatophores, which are growths of root systems above water surfaces like mangroves.
    2) Aerenchyma, which are gas-filled chambers in roots.
  21. 21How does heat affect biological molecules?Proteins denature and unfold with heat, and fats become fluid with heat and stiff with cold.
  22. 22Does freshwater or saltwater have a higher freezing point?Freshwater.
  23. 23Which two molecules act as natural antifreezes in animals?Glycerol and glycoproteins.
  24. 24What is thermal optimum?The particular temperature range at which an organism best performs.
  25. 25What is coral bleaching and how does it occur?Coral bleaching is a symptom of exceeding thermal optimum, as reefs expel symbiotic algae and lose their colour with even a 2° temperature change.
  26. 26What is the difference between water and ions entering plant roots?Water enters through osmosis, ions enter through diffusion.
  27. 27What are xylem?Plant cells that form channels from roots to leaves.
  28. 28In which three ways does water reach plant leaves?1) Root pressure pushes water upwards.
    2) Transportation from leaves creates tension and pulls from above.
    3) Water columns are maintained by cohesion between water molecules.
  29. 29What are some short term adaptations for low H2O availability in plants?1) Close its stomata to reduce CO2 and H2O exchange.
    2) Store H2O in vacuoles for later use.
    3) Shed leaves to help conserve H2O.
  30. 30What are some long term adaptations for low H2O availability in plants?1) Change root depth, since shallow roots are better for sporadic rainfall.
    2) Increase root biomass for easier H2O extraction from soil.
    3) Waxy cuticles, which reduce H2O loss through leaf surfaces.
    4) Hair and needles, which trap moist air in the boundary layer.
    5) Store H2O in vacuoles for later use.
    6) Smaller leaves, which result in more veins and transportation.
    7) Deciduousness, since leaves drop in seasonally dry environments.
  31. 31What are some adaptations to low nutrient availability in plants?1) Alter solute concentration in roots by increasing root to shoot ratio and allocate below-ground growth.
    2) Mutualism, such as mycorrhizae between N2-fixing Rhizobia fungi and legume roots.
    3) Some carnivorous plans obtain nutrients from other animals, such as Venus fly traps.
  32. 32What are PAR wavelengths?Photosynthetically active radiation wavelengths, between 400 and 700 nm, which are suitable for photosynthesis and turned into organic molecules by chlorophyll pigments inside plant chloroplasts.
  33. 33What are the two main steps in photosynthesis?Light reactions and the Calvin cycle.
  34. 34What is rubisco?An enzyme which catalyzes photosynthesis reactions when bound to CO2, but can also catalyze photorespiration when bound to O2 instead.
  35. 35What are stomata?Plants pores which regulate gas exchange.
  36. 36What is C4 photosynthesis?C4 affects grasses and crops and has a spatial separation between light reactions and the Calvin cycle. It transports and concentrates CO2 into bundle cells, then starts up the Calvin cycle when necessary. It occurs during hot temperatures when stomata close.
  37. 37What is C3 photosynthesis?C3 is used by most regular plants with more tissue and is the most efficient form of photosynthesis unless temperatures are hot, in which case it will perform photorespiration.
  38. 38What is CAM photosynthesis?Stomata open at night and stay closed during the day to prevent water loss, which results in much slower rates of photosynthesis but very little water loss from transpiration. Used by succulents and cacti.
  39. 39What is homeostasis?The ability to maintain constant internal conditions in the face of a varying external environment.
  40. 40What are some animal adaptations to terrestrial environments?1) Water and salt balance.
    2) Homeostasis.
    3) Physiological adaptations such as larger kidneys for better solute concentration and water retention.
    4) Behavioural adaptations such as staying in burrows during the day and being active at night.
  41. 41What sort of feedback mechanisms does the body employ when internal temperature changes from 37° C?If higher than 37° C, sweating and panting increase and internal temperature falls.
    If lower than 37° C, metabolism and shivering increase and internal temperature rises.
  42. 42What is thermal inertia?The tendency of an organism to remain at a temperature. Higher for larger organisms, which have a lower surface area to volume ratio.
  43. 43What are the two types of thermoregulation?Homeotherms maintain a constant internal temperature, whereas poikilotherms have an internal temperature that varies with the environment.
  44. 44How does body size affect poikilotherms?The smaller the poikilotherm, the faster its temperature responds but the easier it is for it to find shelter, such as a beetle. The larger the poikilotherm, the slower its temperature responds but the harder it is for it to find shelter, such as a tortoise.
  45. 45What is the difference between endotherms and ectotherms?Endotherms are warm-blooded and their internal temperature is independent of the environment. Ectotherms are cold-blooded and their internal temperature is dependent on their environment.
  46. 46What is basal metabolic rate?As body mass increases, mass-specific metabolic rate decreases.
  47. 47What are some adaptations for heat regulation?1) Blood shunting, in which the vessels closest to extremities are closed.
    2) Countercurrent heat exchange, in which heat is transferred from warm arteries to cold veins side-by-side in limbs.
  48. 48What are three methods of coping with extreme variation?1) Migration, which is seasonal movement from one region to another.
    2) Storage, which is accumulated food or fat reserves for later use.
    3) Dormancy, which is drastic reduction in metabolic rates.
  49. 49What are the four types of dormancy?1) Diapause, which is partial or complete physiological shutdown in insects.
    2) Hibernation, which is seasonal lowered heart rate and body temperature in smaller mammals.
    3) Torpor, which is a brief period of reduced activity and body temperature in birds.
    4) Aestivation, which is the shutdown of metabolism in hot and dry conditions in reptiles.
  50. 50What are some primary greenhouse gases?H2O, CO2, CH4, N2O, O3.
  51. 51What is the angle of incidence and what effect does it have on the planet?The angle of incidence is where sun rays hit the planet. The solar energy is focused on a smaller area, namely the equator, than at higher latitudes. This results in the equator being hotter, and higher latitudes having greater seasonal temperature changes.
  52. 52What effect do Hadley cells have on climate?Wet and moist air rises and descends between the equator and 30° N or S to create tropics. Cool and dry air rises and descends at 30° N or S of the equator to create deserts.
  53. 53What is the intertropical convergence zone?A high-precipitation area where two Hadley cells meet. Shifts over the course of the year, which affects the seasonality of rain in the tropics.
  54. 54Which two factors affect wind patterns?Earth rotation and Hadley cells.
  55. 55Which way do winds blow in each hemisphere?Clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
  56. 56Which types of winds do tropics and mid-latitudes produce?Tropics produce trade winds and mid-latitudes produce westerlies.
  57. 57What is the Coriolis effect?The inertial curvature of the Earth affecting global winds, ocean currents, storms, and any phenomenon moving across the surface of the planet.
  58. 58What is albedo?The amount of solar energy reflected by an object. Dark things like asphalt absorb, light things like snow reflect.
  59. 59How does elevation affect temperature?Elevation lowers pressure, which in turn reduces temperature.
  60. 60Why is there more precipitation near coasts?Air picks up moisture over the oceans and will dump rain in order to make it over mountains, resulting in more precipitation near coasts.
  61. 61What affects global climate distribution?1) Angle of incidence.
    2) Hadley cells.
    3) Coriolis effect.
    4) Albedo.
    5) Elevation.
    6) Land area.
  62. 62What are biomes?Geographical regions containing similar types of plant communities based on annual precipitation and temperature.
  63. 63What are climate diagrams?Summaries of monthly precipitation, temperature, and growing season. When the blue line exceeds the red line, plant growth is limited by temperature. When the red line exceeds the blue line, plant growth is limited by precipitation.
  64. 64What characterizes tundras?Permafrost, little precipitation, short growing season, no trees, only low vegetation, and high latitudes.
  65. 65What characterizes boreal forests?Warmer than the tundra, low precipitation, longer growing season, mainly evergreens
  66. 66What characterizes temperate rainforests?Mild and wet due to warm ocean currents, larger evergreens like redwoods and Douglas firs.
  67. 67What characterizes temperate seasonal forests?Moderate temperature and precipitation, mostly deciduous like maple, beech, and oak, pines in drier areas.
  68. 68What characterizes woodlands and shrublands?Restricted by rainfall, hot summers and mild, wet winters, trees adapted to fire and draught, more open canopies.
  69. 69What characterizes temperate grasslands and cold deserts?Hot, dry summers and cold winters, dominated by grass, herbaceous plants, and shrubs.
  70. 70What characterizes tropical rainforests?Very warm and wet, tall trees with multiple canopy layers, highest species diversity, fast decomposition.
  71. 71What characterizes tropical seasonal forests and savannahs?Warm but seasonal precipitation, low canopy cover, trees shed leaves in dry season.
  72. 72What characterizes subtropical deserts?Hot and very dry.
  73. 73How are communities described?Qualitatively and quantitatively.
  74. 74What drives community?Diversity and assemblages.
  75. 75What is an ecotone?The boundary between two distinct communities.
  76. 76What is relative abundance?The proportion of the total community represented by a species.
  77. 77What are diversity measures?Methods of estimating the species richness and evenness in a community. Simpson's Index and Shannon-Weiner Index are two examples.
  78. 78What are keystone species?Species which substantially affect community structure and habitat, but are not necessarily numerous. Examples include predators preventing one species from dominating the community.
  79. 79What are the various trophic levels in a food web?1) Producers, who receive their energy from photosynthesis.
    2) Primary consumers, who consume producers.
    3) Secondary consumers, who consume primary costumers.
    4) Tertiary consumers, who consume secondary consumers.
    5) Detritivores, who consume decaying organic matter.
  80. 80What are the two types of food web regulation?1) Bottom-up control, where abundance is determined by the energy from producers.
    2) Top-down control, where abundance is determined by apex predators.
  81. 81What is community stability?The ability of a community to maintain its structure, such as abundance, species richness, and composition.
  82. 82What are the two components of community stability?1) Resistance, which is constancy over time.
    2) Resilience, which is the ability to rebound from disturbances.
  83. 83What are alternative stable states?Transitions between communities which occur when disturbances push a community into a new state that is resistant to change. An example would include fire determining the transition between forests and shrublands, or clear, macrophyte-dominated lakes and turbid, algae-dominated lakes.
  84. 84What is succession?Patterns of species replacement and directional change in community structure over time.
  85. 85What is the difference between pioneer species and climax communities?Pioneer species are the first to establish after a disturbance, such as grass, shrubs, and light-tolerant trees. Climax communities are the final stage to establish after a disturbance, such as oaks and shade-tolerant trees.
  86. 86What is the difference between primary succession and primary succession?Primary succession begins from an environment with no plants or organic soil, and secondary succession begins from intact organic soil.
  87. 87What are legacies?Benefits left from a previous environment during secondary succession, such as soil fungi, bacteria, nutrients, and seed banks.
  88. 88Which traits determine succession?Number of seeds, size, growth rates, dispersal methods, maturity, and shade tolerance.
  89. 89What is serotiny?Species whose cones are usually closed, but have adapted to release their seeds after a fire when a high enough temperature has been reached, such as jack pines.
  90. 90What produces successional change?1) Facilitation, wherein one species helps others to establish, such as N-fixing symbionts.
    2) Inhibition, wherein one species inhibits the growth of another, such as competition, predation, or parasitism.
    3) Tolerance, wherein establishments depends on life history characteristics and is independent of other species, such as shade tolerance in trees.
  91. 91What is the shifting mosaic model?Small-scale disturbances create a mosaic of patches each int its own phase of succession, also known as gap phase dynamics.
  92. 92What is the difference between energy and nutrient movement in ecosystems?Energy flows through ecosystems in one way and is lost as heat during each transaction, whereas nutrients cycle through ecosystems in multiple ways and are recycled during each transaction.
  93. 93What is an invasive species?An introduced species that becomes established and has negative ecological impacts, such as the loss of native species. Traits include fast growth, generalist resource use, high reproduction, high tolerance, asexual reproduction, and long-distance dispersal.
  94. 94What is GPP?The amount of energy captured and assimilated by producers. 60% is used for respiration and 40% is used for reproduction.
  95. 95What is NPP?The total amount of energy used to produce new biomass.
  96. 96What does the equation NPP = GPP - Ra mean?New biomass produced is equal to the total energy captured and assimilated by producers minus respiration.
  97. 97How does climate distribution affect global trends in productivity?The closer to the equator, the higher the NPP, such as with tropical rain forests and shorelines. The farther from the equator, the lower the NPP, such as with tundra and open oceans.
  98. 98Which two factors affect NPP?Temperature and precipitation.
  99. 99What is NEP and how does its charge affect the environment?NEP is net ecosystem productivity. When positive, C is absorbed from the atmosphere. When negative, C is released into the atmosphere.
  100. 100What is Liebig's Law of the Minimum?Growth is controlled by a single limiting factor, not total resource availability.
  101. 101How does phosphorous enter into ecosystems?Does not come from the atmosphere, is instead eroded, dissolved, and washed off rocks. It eventually reaches the ocean floor where it is inaccessible to humans until it hardens and re-enters the terrestrial cycle. Is a limited resource.
  102. 102What is eutrophication?Increased phosphorous levels leading to more algae, which in turn leads to more productivity.
  103. 103How does nitrogen enter into ecosystems?Resides in the atmosphere as N2 gas, but is inaccessible to humans in this form unless converted to ammonium by bacteria using the nitrogenase enzyme. Is not a limited resource.
  104. 104Which two methods do humans use for industrial N2 fixation?1) The Haber-Bosch process.
    2) Planting more N2-fixing legumes.
  105. 105What is nitrification?The process of converting ammonium to nitrite to nitrate.
  106. 106What is assimilation?Plants uptaking ammonium and nitrate from the soil and incorporating them into organic molecules.
  107. 107What is mineralization?Organic N2 compounds in dead organic matter are broken down into ammonium by fungi and bacteria. Can then be uptaken again and reintroduced into the N2 cycle.
  108. 108What is denitrification?Bacteria reducing N2 in anaerobic conditions and returning it to the atmosphere as gas.
  109. 109What is a dead zone?A zone where oxygen has been depleted. Occurs in areas with lots of nutrient runoff such as the Gulf of Mexico and varies from year to year. Associated with massive fish deaths. An ecological and economical problem due to loss of revenue from fishing.
  110. 110What is the difference between ecology in comparison to other related fields?1. Natural history: individual data collection.
    2. Environmental science: broader, effects of human involvement.
    3. Conservation biology: species and population.
    4. Restoration ecology: remediation of habitats due to human activity.
    5. Natural resource management: forestry, fisheries, sustainability.
  111. 111How are scientists able to reconstruct past CO2 levels?Extraction of air bubbles trapped in glaciers.
  112. 112What is ocean acidification and how does it affect marine biota?30% decrease in pH levels from 8.2 to 8.1. Increase in H ions harms plants and shellfish, since the increase in acidity dissolves calcium carbonate.
  113. 113What are alleles?Different forms of a particular gene in individuals within a population.
  114. 114What are phenotypes?The physical, observable traits or attributes of an organism.
  115. 115What is fitness?The relative ability to survive and reproduce as compared to other organisms.
  116. 116How do adaptations arise?From selection of heritable traits which affect fitness.
  117. 117What are the three types of selection?Stabilizing: individuals with intermediate traits have the greatest fitness.
    Directional: individuals with one extreme trait have the greatest fitness.
    Disruptive: individuals with either extreme trait have the greatest fitness.
  118. 118What is evolution?A change in allele frequencies over time.
  119. 119What is microevolution?Altering characteristics of a population over several generations.
  120. 120Which two factors drive evolution?1. Selection: differences in fitness.
    2. Genetic drift: random chance of certain alleles showing up in small populations.
  121. 121What does natural selection lead to?Organisms possessing traits which maximize individual fitness.
  122. 122Does evolution occur at an individual level?No. Evolution occurs at the level of a population over multiple generations.
  123. 123Do individuals act for the good of a species?No. Individuals act to maximize their own fitness and possibly that of their offspring or close relatives.
  124. 124What is life history?An organism's schedule for growth, development, reproduction, and survival. Traits are selected to maximize fitness and reflect trade-offs in how energy and resources can be allocated.
  125. 125What is the difference between r and K selected species?K-selected or slow life histories take a long time to mature, have long lives, few offspring at once, and high investment in each, like whales.
    R-selected or fast life histories mature quickly, have short lives, have many offspring at once, and low investment in each, like mice.
  126. 126What is the CSR triangle?Competitors are good with competition, stress tolerators are good with stress, and ruderals are good with disturbances.
  127. 127What are the three trade offs for life history strategies?1. Offspring number vs. offspring survival: Fast LH results in many offspring with low survival, slow LH results in fewer offspring with high survival.
    2. Offspring number vs. parent survival: the more offspring, the greater the chances of parent mortality.
    3. Growth and survival vs. reproduction: delaying reproduction results in faster growth and greater survival.
  128. 128How does parental investment affect offspring survival?The greater the parental investment, the greater the survival of the offspring.
  129. 129What are the two approaches to reproduction?Semelparity: reproduce once then die.
    Iteroparity: reproduce multiple times.
  130. 130What is senescence?A gradual decrease in fecundity and increase in probability of mortality. Long-living organisms invest in physiological repair mechanisms to delay senescence.
  131. 131What are some responses to the environment which life histories undergo?Tree frogs undergo metamorphosis when food is high, tree frogs speed up hatching when they sense vibrations from predators, heavily hunted boars breed earlier and have larger litters.
  132. 132What are the two types of reproduction?1. Asexual: creates offspring genetically identical to parent, like bacteria with binary fission, plants with vegetative reproduction, and animal with parthenogenesis.
    2. Sexual: progeny inherit DNA from two parents via haploid gametes which result in a diploid zygote.
  133. 133What are the three types of sexual strategies in plants?1. Hermaphroditic: plants have flowers with both male and female parts.
    2. Monoecious: plants have separate male and female flowers on the same individual.
    3. Dioecious: plants have male or female flowers on completely separate individuals.
  134. 134What are the costs of sexual reproduction?1. The need to grow sexual organs.
    2. The energy required for floral displays, courtship rituals, and mating in general.
    3. Only 50% of genes are passed on to the offspring.
  135. 135What are the benefits of sexual reproduction?1. Purges mutations from a bloodline.
    2. Helps in coping with environmental variation.
    3. Helps defend against parasites and pathogens.
  136. 136What is the Red Queen hypothesis?Organisms must adapt and reproduce not only to gain reproductive advantage, but also to survive against ever-evolving opposing organisms in an ever-changing environment. Intends to explain extinction rates caused by co-evolution between competing species, and the advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual.
  137. 137Which factors must hermaphroditism exceed in order to occur?The fitness gained by hermaphroditism must be greater than the fitness gained by either a male or a female on their own.
  138. 138What are the three types of mating systems?1. Promiscuity: most common, essentially random pairing, pollen or sperm or eggs are released directly into the environment.
    2. Monogamy: male and female cooperate together to raise young.
    3. Polygamy: an organism has multiple partners.
  139. 139What are the two conditions favouring monogamy?1. Both sexes do better when they cooperate.
    2. Opportunity for multiple females is limited.
  140. 140What benefits does extra-pair copulation provide?Increase male fitness because of additional offspring, and increased female fitness because of genetically superior offspring.
  141. 141What are the two types of polygamy?1. Polygyny: one male with multiple females. Males compete for females, defend territory, and do not rear offspring.
    2. Polyandry: one female with multiple males. Female receives material benefits from males which allows her to produce more eggs.
  142. 142What is sexual dimorphism?When males and females have different phenotypes, such as male birds being larger with brighter plumage.
  143. 143What are the three main causes of sexual dimorphism?1. Life history differences between the sexes.
    2. Male competition for mates.
    3. Female choice.
  144. 144What causes sexual selection?Females maximize their fitness by choosing the best males as mates. Male competition for breeding produces sexual selection for specific traits related to reproduction, like colours, ornaments, and courtship rituals.
  145. 145Which two types of benefits affect the evolution of female mate choice?1. Material benefits: provides access to resources such as food or territory.
    2. Non-material benefits: possess traits with little apparent value, such as male peacock tails.
  146. 146What are the three reasons a female might choose a male based on non-material benefits, such as a long tail?1. Good genes hypothesis: direct relationship between long tails and other fitness benefits.
    2. Handicap principle: must have good genes in order to cope with a long tail.
    3. Runaway selection: will select a mate with a long tail so her sons will also have long tails.
  147. 147How does living in groups increase fitness?1. Survival: group defense, such as a group of muskox; dilution effect, such as a school of fish; and shared vigilance, such as birds alerting others to predators.
    2. Feeding: can cooperate in hunting prey, such as a pack of wolves.
    3. Mating: leks where male birds congregate to perform mating displays, the greater the amount of males, the more females that will be attracted.
  148. 148How does living in groups decrease fitness?1. Bigger groups attract more predators.
    2. Parasites and diseases are more easily transmitted.
    3. Greater competition and need for food.
  149. 149What are the four categories of social interactions?1. Cooperation: + for donor, + for recipient.
    2. Selfishness: + for donor, - for recipient.
    3. Altruism: - for donor, + for recipient.
    4. Spitefulness: - for donor, - for recipient.
  150. 150What are four explanations for altruism?1. Group selection: individuals sacrificing themselves for the good of the population, not a viable explanation, has been discredited.
    2. Manipulation: donor being exploited by recipient against their will, such as brood parasitism with bird eggs in other nests.
    3. Reciprocal altruism: donor repaid by recipient at a later date, such as blood meal sharing in vampire bats.
    4. Kin selection: helping out relatives increases inclusive fitness.
  151. 151What are some examples of kin selection?Alarm calling in colonies of sister ground squirrels, male coalitions of brother and half brother turkeys helping one dominant male attract a mate, African hunting dogs providing their nieces and nephews with food.
  152. 152What does the likelihood of altruistic behaviour depend on?Degree of relatedness.
  153. 153What is eusociality?A social system for dividing reproductive labour in insects. Queens and future queens are reproductive females, workers are sterile females, and drones are fertile males. Determined by gametes in the queen.
  154. 154What four factors do eusocial species have?1. Large colonies.
    2. Overlapping generations.
    3. Cooperative brood care.
    4. Sterile and reproductive members.
  155. 155What is population distribution?Spatial patterns of species.
  156. 156Which three factors affect population distribution?1. Dispersal.
    2. Environmental conditions.
    3. Biotic interactions.
  157. 157What is biotic homogenization?Global biodiversity is reduced as regions become more similar to one another due to increased introduced species.
  158. 158How do ecologists predict species distribution?1. Obtain record of where species has been found.
    2. Determine the ecological envelope or range of suitable conditions.
    3. Map region where those conditions occur.
  159. 159What are the limitations of ecological niche modelling?1. Purely empirical: unable to answer why species is where it is, can only give location.
    2. No species interactions: unable to answer if dependent on or avoidant of other species.
    3. No dispersal: how quickly it can move into new areas.
  160. 160What are the two types of ranges in geographic distribution?1. Endemic: found in one place.
    2. Cosmopolitan: found in multiple places.
  161. 161What is abundance?The total number of individuals in a given area, scale-dependent.
  162. 162What is the distribution-abundance relationship?Weak tendency for abundant species to have larger ranges, may relate to resource availability.
  163. 163What is density?Individuals per unit area, typically highest near the centre of a range of a species.
  164. 164What is the distribution-density relationship?The larger the individual, the smaller its density and vice versa. Based on space and productivity of trophic levels, such as lots of insects but fewer elephants.
  165. 165What are the three types of dispersion?1. Clustered, such as fungi.
    2. Evenly spaced, such as penguins.
    3. Random, such as dandelions.
  166. 166What is dispersal?One-way movement from one area to another, reach new suitable habitat.
  167. 167What determines the rate of population spread?Dispersal distance.
  168. 168What are some human influences on dispersal?Habitat barriers, such as roads and dams; and species introductions, such as rabbits in Australia and zebra mussels in Canada.
  169. 169What is migration?Movement that returns a species to its place of origin, such as zooplankton migrating vertically to avoid predators and caribou migrating seasonally. Response to resource availability.
  170. 170When is the exponential growth model realistic?In places with small initial populations or short time scales.
  171. 171What is discrete growth?When species breed or die at particular times of the year, such as organisms only reproducing in the springtime.
  172. 172Which factors regulates population growth?1. Density-independent factors, such as natural disasters.
    2. Density-dependent factors, such as physical space, nest sites, disease, and predation.
  173. 173What do the three graphs of models of growth look like?1. N versus time: exponential is J-shaped, logistic is S-shaped.
    2. dN/dt versus N: exponential is an upward incline, logistic is an upside down u.
    3. (1/N)(dN/dt) versus N: exponential is flatlined, logistic is a downward decline.
  174. 174What is positive density dependence known as in small populations?The Allee effect.
  175. 175What is the difference between cohort and static life tables?1. Cohort: marks individuals at birth and tracks them over their lifetime. Cannot separate age from yearly environmental effects.
    2. Static: measures fecundity and survival over a single time interval. Cannot account for age or represent different years well.
  176. 176What are the three types of survivorship curves?I. High mortality when old, such as bears.
    II. Constant mortality, such as squirrels.
    III. High mortality when young, such as dandelions.
  177. 177What are the positive or negative effects of different species interactions?Predation: +/-
    Herbivory: +/-
    Parasitism: +/-
    Competition: -/-
    Mutualism: +/+
    Commensalism: +/0
  178. 178What are parasitoids?Live within tissues of host, feed on and kill host as larvae.
  179. 179How do predator populations follow prey populations?They are always a 1/4 phase behind.
  180. 180What are the assumptions of the Lotka-Volterra model?1. No prey density-dependence.
    2. Predators only have one prey species.
    3. Predator declines exponentially without prey.
    4. Encounters happen at random.
    5. Predators cannot be satiated.
    6. No time lags exist.
  181. 181What is the functional response to prey density?Predators consume more prey as prey increases.
  182. 182What are the three types of functional responses?I. Linear increase in consumption rate.
    II. Consumption rate is rapid at first, then levels off as prey density increases. Results from handling time, time it takes to process and eat each prey.
    III. Consumption rate is initially slow, accelerates, then levels off as prey density increases.
  183. 183What are three reasons for a Type III response to prey density?1. Prey can find refuges.
    2. May not have experienced or efficient predators.
    3. Predators may switch to other prey.
  184. 184What is the numerical response to prey density?Increase in prey density results in an increase in predator density.
  185. 185What is competition?Individuals reduce the fitness of one another through preemptive use of shared limiting resources, such as sunlight, food, water, space, etc.
  186. 186Is logistic growth density-dependent?Yes.
  187. 187Which growth model is an example of intraspecific competition?Logistic.
  188. 188What is the competitive exclusion principle?If two species are limited by the same resources, the better competitor will drive the other to extinction. Therefore, complete competitors cannot coexist.
  189. 189What is the enemy release hypothesis?Introduced species gain fitness advantage because they have fewer natural enemies. Not always supported.
  190. 190When can species coexist?When they limit themselves more then they limit each other, when intraspecific competition is greater than interspecific competition.
  191. 191Which species wins in a Lotka-Volterra competition model with straight lines?Whichever K species is furthest to the outside of the graph.
  192. 192What are the two possible outcomes of a Lotka-Volterra competition model with crossed lines?1. Founder control: when K1 and K2 are both the furthest outside points on the graph. Winner depends on initial population sizes.
    2. Stable co-existence: when K1 and K2 are the innermost points on the graph. This means intraspecific competition is greater than interspecific competition.
  193. 193What are the three types of competition?Exploitative: a shared resource is reduced to a level that limits other species.
    Interference: competitors do not consume resources but defend them from others.
    Apparent: two species have a negative effect on each other due to a shared enemy.
  194. 194What is landscape ecology?How the spatial arrangements of habitats influence individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems.
  195. 195What causes spatial variation?1. Topography: elevation, slope.
    2. Hydrology: water, surface flow.
    3. Soils: texture, depth, nutrients.
    4. Weather: wind, snowpacks.
    5. Disturbances: storms, fires.
    6. Land use: agriculture, forestry.
  196. 196What is the difference between alpha and gamma diversity?1. Alpha: number of species at one site, also local diversity.
    2. Gamma: number of species across a large area, also regional diversity.
  197. 197Which factors make up species sorting?Environmental conditions, species interactions, and dispersal.
  198. 198What are the effects of isolation on species richness?The farther and smaller an island is from the mainland, the lower its species richness.
  199. 199Where is the equilibrium found on an island biogeography graph?Where the colonization and extinction curves intersect. Species turnover is constant, since they are still arriving and being lost at constant rates.
  200. 200What are the major causes of species loss?Habitat loss and overharvesting, followed by pollution, invasive species, and disease.

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Biology Karteikarten am BIOL 275, erstellt von Carlie Hinz am 14/10/2017.
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Carlie Hinz
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